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        • Obstacles in Epilepsy Diagnosis: If You Don't Ask, They Won't Tell
        • Podcast on Electrophysiological Biomarkers
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      • Educational Webcasts & Web Links
        • AED Mechanisms of Actions Roundtable
        • Adverse Effects Related to Medication Roundtable
        • An Algorithm on the Diagnosis of Nonlesional Epilepsy
        • An Algorithm on the Treatment of Epilepsy in Patients with a Normal MRI
        • Treatment for Patients with Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome Roundtable
      • About Epilepsy & Seizures
        • EpiNet Seizure Classification Teaching Module
        • Classifying Seizures
          • Distinguishing Factors
          • Generalized Seizures
            • Absence
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            • Causes
            • Diagnosis
              • Clues from the Event
              • Video-EEG Monitoring
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            • Readings
          • References
          • Status Epilepticus
            • Convulsive SE
              • Complications and Prognosis
              • Symptoms and Causes
            • Less Obvious SE
            • Diagnosing SE
            • Managing Status Epilepticus
              • Phenytoin and Fosphenytoin
              • Valproic Acid
              • Phenobarbital
              • Diazepam
              • Lorazepam
              • Midazolam and Clonazepam
              • Continuous Anesthesia for Refractory SE
              • Medical Treatment of Other Forms of SE
              • Troubleshooting
            • Readings
        • Overview of Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Convulsions
          • Benign Rolandic
          • CEOP
          • Childhood Absence (Pyknolepsy)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
          • Grand Mal Seizures on Awakening
          • Infant Benign Myoclonic
          • Infant Severe Myoclonic
          • Juvenile Myoclonic
          • Myoclonic-Astatic Seizures
          • Ring Chromosome 20 Syndrome
            • Ring Chromosome 20 Symptom List
          • Unverricht-Lundborg Disease
          • References
        • Neonatal Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Seizures (Non-Familial)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
        • Idiopathic Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes in Infancy
          • Benign Familial and Non-Familial Infantile Seizures (Watanabe-Vigevano Syndrome)
          • Benign Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Generalized Epilepsies with Febrile Seizures Plus (GEFS ; Autosomal Dominant Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus)
        • Epileptic Encephalopathies in Infancy and Childhood
          • Hypothalamic (Gelastic) Epilepsy
          • Myoclonic Status in Non-Progressive Encephalopathies
        • Severe Neocortical Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy and Childhood
          • Epilepsia Partialis Continua of Kozhevnikov
          • Hemiconvulsion-Hemiplegia Epilepsy Syndrome
          • Kozhevnikov-Rasmussen Syndrome
          • Migrating Focal Seizures of Infancy
        • Benign Childhood Focal Seizures
          • Benign Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (Rolandic Seizures)
          • Gastaut-Type Idiopathic Childhood Occipital Epilepsy
        • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies
          • Childhood Absence Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures Only
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Phantom Absences
          • Juvenile Absence Epilepsy
          • Perioral Myoclonia with Absences
        • Familial (Autosomal Dominant) Focal Epilepsies
          • Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE)
          • Familial Autosomal Dominant Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (Autosomal Dominant Focal Epilepsy with Auditory Features)
          • Familial Focal Epilepsy with Variable Foci
          • Familial Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Symptomatic and Probably Symptomatic Focal Epilepsies
          • Common Frontal Lobe Seizures Depending on Localization
          • Frontal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with Hippocampal Sclerosis
          • Occipital Lobe Epilepsies
          • Parietal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE)
        • Reflex Seizures and Related Epileptic Syndromes
          • Idiopathic Photosensitive Occipital Lobe Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Reading Epilepsy
          • Jeavons Syndrome (Eyelid Myoclonia with Absences)
          • Photosensitive Epilepsy
          • Self-Induced Seizures
          • Startle Epilepsy (Startle-Induced Seizures)
          • Television Epilepsy
          • Video Game-Induced Seizures (VGS)
        • Hormones and Epilepsy
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
            • Patterns and Causes
            • Evaluation
            • Treatment
          • Effects on Other Hormones
          • Female Reproductive Endocrine Function
            • Evaluating Reproductive Dysfunction
          • Female Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Male Reproductive Endocrine Function
          • Male Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Menarche
          • Menopause and Perimenopause
          • Other Hormonal Systems and AEDs
          • Postictal Prolactin Testing
          • Reproductive issues
            • Contraception
            • Fertility
            • Obstetrical Risks
            • Seizures During Pregnancy
            • AED Management During Pregnancy
            • Teratogenicity
            • Monitoring Pregnancy in Women with Epilepsy
            • Breastfeeding
          • References
        • Psychiatric and Behavioral Aspects
          • Effects of Treatment
          • Evaluating Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Influence of Seizure Types
          • Interictal Behaviors of TLE
          • Psychiatric Predispositions
          • Psychiatric Symptoms
            • Depression
            • Psychosis
            • Forced Normalization
            • Aggression
            • Other Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Treatment of Psychiatric Complications
          • Readings
      • Co-Existing Disorders
        • Brain Tumors
          • Pathophysiology
          • Clues to anatomic location
          • Neuroimaging
          • Astrocytoma
          • Oligodendroglioma
          • Ganglioglioma
          • DNETs
          • Meningioma
          • Metastatic
          • Treatment
          • Prophylaxis
          • AED Treatment
          • Surgical Planning and Prep
          • Postoperative Complications
          • Future Trends
          • References
        • Cardiac Disorders
          • Arrhythmias
          • Assessment: Neurologic or Cardiac?
          • Complications
          • Congenital Heart Disease
          • Managing Cardiac Disease
          • Managing Epilepsy
          • Myocardial Infarction
          • References
          • Valve Disease
        • Cerebrovascular Disease
          • Ischemic Etiologies
          • Hemorrhagic Etiologies
          • Other Etiologies
          • Epidemiology of Stroke
          • Incidence and Risk Factors for Seizures
          • Types of Seizures
          • Assessment of Seizures
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Treatment of Seizures
            • Phenytoin
            • Phenobarbital
            • Carbamazepine
            • Valproate
            • Other AEDs
            • Special Situations
          • Prognosis
          • References
        • Developmental Disorders
          • Childhood-specific epilepsies with DD
            • Mechanisms of seizure-induced brain damage
              • Recurrent Seizures: Damage to the Developing Brain
              • Status Epilepticus : Damage to the Developing Brain
            • References
          • Metabolic and Genetic Disorders
            • Family History
            • Physical Examination
            • Neurologic Examination
            • Age of Onset
              • Age of Onset - table
            • Seizure Frequency and Types
            • Diagnostic Testing
              • Diagnostic Testing - table
            • Identifying the Locus
              • Identifying the Locus - table
            • Treatment
            • References
        • Gastrointestinal & Liver Disease
          • Gastrointestinal disease
          • Liver Disease
          • Effects on specific AEDs
            • Carbamazepine
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Phenobarbital
            • Phenytoin
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproic acid
            • Zonisamide
          • References
          • Choosing and monitoring AEDs
        • Head Trauma & Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
          • Management Guidelines
          • Mechanisms of Brain Injury
            • Biochemical Effects
            • Can Responses be Altered?
            • Cellular Mechanisms of Epileptogenesis
            • Genetic and Molecular Factors
          • Prevention and Prophylaxis
          • References
          • Risks
        • Hematologic Disorders
          • Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy
          • Aplastic Anemia
          • Bone Marrow Transplantation
          • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
          • Folate Deficiency
          • Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
          • Newborn Hemorrhagic Disease
          • Proliferative Disorders
          • References
          • Sickle Cell Disease
          • Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
        • Infectious States & Seizures
          • Amebic Parasitic Infections
          • Bacterial Meningitis
            • Diagnosis
            • Epidemiology
            • Seizure Complications
            • Treatment
          • Epidural Abscess
          • Epilepsy & TB treatment
          • Epilepsy as a Consequence of Infection
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Fungal Infections
          • Helminthic parasitic Infections
            • Angiostrongyliasis
            • Echinococcosis
            • Neurocysticercosis
            • Schistosomiasis
            • Strongyloidiasis
            • Toxocariasis
            • Trichinosis
          • Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients
          • Intraparenchymal Abscess
          • Lyme Disease
            • Diagnosis
            • Early Disseminated Infection
            • Early Localized Infection
            • Late Disseminated Infection
            • Treatment
          • Malaria
          • Mycobacterial Infections
            • CNS Tuberculoma
            • Tuberculous Meningitis
          • Mycoplasmal Infections
          • Noninfectious Causes of Meningitis
          • Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
          • References
          • Seizure Complications of Antibacterial Treatment
          • Slow Virus Infections
          • Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
          • Subdural Empyema
          • Syphilis
          • Toxoplasmosis
          • Trypanosomiasis
          • Viral Infections
            • Arboviruses
            • Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
            • Enteroviruses
            • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
            • HHV-6 encephalitis
            • Herpes Encephalitis
            • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
            • Rabies
            • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications - table
        • Inflammatory Disorders
          • Crohn's Disease
        • Metabolic Disorders
          • Adrenal Insufficiency
          • Electrolyte Abnormalities
            • Hypernatremia
            • Hypocalcemia
            • Hypoglycemia
            • Hypomagnesemia
            • Hyponatremia
            • Nonketotic Hyperglycemia
          • Hyperthyroidism
          • Hypoparathyroidism
          • Inborn Errors
            • Gaucher's Disease
            • Hepatic Porphyria
            • Mucopolysaccharidoses
            • Niemann-Pick Disease
            • Phenylketonuria
          • References
        • Migraine & Epilepsy
          • Classification
          • Clinical Features
          • Epidemiologic Connections
          • Headache as a Consequence of Seizures
          • Migraine & Epilepsy - table
          • Migraine-Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Phases
          • References
          • The EEG
          • Treatment Considerations
          • Variants Confused with Epilepsy
        • Renal Disorders
          • Aluminum Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Correction for Hemodialysis
          • Dialysis Disequilibrium Syndrome
          • Dialysis Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Drug Dosing Rate Adjustments
          • Effects of Hemodialysis
          • Effects on Specific AEDs
            • Carbamazepine
            • Clonazepam
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Fosphenytoin
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Phenobarbital
            • Phenytoin
            • Primidone
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproate
            • Zonisamide
          • Effects on Steady-State Plasma Concentration
          • Physiology of Drug Clearance
          • References
          • Uremic Encephalopathy
        • Sleep Disorders
          • Approach to Daytime Sleepiness
          • Approach to Insomnia
          • Classification
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Effects of AEDs on Sleep
          • Effects of IEDs on Sleep
          • Effects of Seizures on Sleep
          • Fundamentals
          • Idiopathic CNS Hypersomnia
          • Insomnia
          • Narcolepsy
          • Periodic Limb Movements and Restless Legs Syndrome
          • References
          • Sleep Apnea
        • Transplantation & Seizures
          • Acute Management
          • Bone Marrow
          • Chronic Management
          • Diagnostic Approach
          • Heart
          • Kidney
          • Liver
          • Lung
          • Pancreas
          • References
        • Pulmonary Disorders
          • Focal Cortical or Limbic-Onset Seizures
          • Generalized Seizures or SE
          • References
          • Respiratory Effects of AEDs
          • Respiratory Insufficiency
          • Sleep Apnea Syndrome
          • Theophylline Toxicity
      • Specialized Populations
        • Men
          • Effects of AEDs
          • Reproductive Endocrine Disorders
          • Male Infertility
          • Male Contraception
          • Effects of AEDs on Male Maturation
          • Effects on Sexual Function
          • A Commentary: The Effects of AEDS on Male Hormones
          • References
        • Seniors
          • Common Causes
          • Strokes
          • Seizure Presentation
          • Causes of Episodic Neurologic Dysfunction
          • Evaluation of First Seizure
          • First Seizure Treatment
          • Choosing AEDs for Seniors
          • Pharmacokinetics
          • Prognosis and Quality of Life
          • Long-term Management
          • Surgery
          • Status Epilepticus
          • References
        • Women
          • Physician's Discussion Checklist for Women with Epilepsy
          • Discussion Guide
          • New Evidence for Heightened Obstetrical Risk in Women with Epilepsy
      • Diagnosis & Treatment
        • The Epilepsy Clinic–Test Your Clinical Knowledge
          • AED Withdrawl and CAAEEG
          • Artifact Read as GSW in Vertigo
          • DT Tractography
          • Dementia and EEG
          • Epilepsy and Alzheimer’s Dementia
          • Generic Drugs and Epilepsy
          • How Can EEG Help After a Seizure?
          • IED Frequency and Seizure Severity
          • Ictal Asystole
          • Jeavon's Syndrome
          • Lambda Waves
          • Left ATL and Memory Outcome
          • Post TLE AED Withdrawl
          • Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy
          • Rasmussen Encephalitis and Hemispherectomy
          • Rett Syndrome
          • SISCOM
          • Spells and Abnormal EEG
          • Spells and Cerebrovascular Disease
          • The Interictal-Ictal Continuum
          • Wada Testing and Functional MRI
          • What are the Pitfalls in the Diagnosis of Epilepsy in the Elderly?
          • What is the Importance of Classification?
          • When Do You Consider Epilepsy Drug Resistant?
          • Why Delay?
          • Wickets and Surgical Delay
          • iEEG and discordant scEEG
          • mTLE and Seizures after LATL
        • Epilepsy Care Quality Measures
          • Evaluation of a First Seizure
          • New Onset Epilepsy
          • Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Women of Childbearing Potential
          • Patient-Identified Quality Measures
        • Disgnostic Evaluation of Autoimmune Epilepsy
        • Drugs & Their Contribution to Seizures
          • Metabolic Encephalopathy
          • Surgery and Anesthesia
          • Antimicrobial Drugs and Immunosuppression
          • Differentiating Nonepileptic Behavior
          • Antidepressants
          • Antipsychotics
          • Anxiolytics and Hypnotics
          • Amphetamines
          • AEDs that can Cause Seizures
          • OTC and Herbal Medicines
          • Alcohol
          • Cocaine
          • Illicit Stimulants
          • Opioids and CNS Depressants
          • References
        • Emergency Department Care
          • Acutely Seizing Patients
            • Absence Seizures
            • Myoclonic Seizures
            • Nonepileptic Psychogenic Seizures
          • Approach to Epilepsy
            • Treating Convulsive SE
          • First or Unknown Seizure History Visits
          • Non-Seizure Visits
          • Post-Seizure Visits
            • Abnormal Neuroimaging
            • Abnormal Postictal Labs
            • Abnormal Postictal Neurologic Exam
            • Changes in Duration, Frequency, or Type
          • References
        • ICU Care
          • Electively Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • Electively Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • Emergently Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • Emergently Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • References
        • Ketogenic Diet
        • Non-Drug Therapies
        • Procedures in Epilepsy Patients
          • Premedication
          • Anesthesia
          • General Anesthetics
            • Barbiturates
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Enflurane
            • Etomidate
            • Ketamine
            • Opioids
            • Other Inhalational Agents
            • Propofol
          • Local Anesthesia
            • Lidocaine
            • Other Local Anesthetics
          • Anesthetic Adjuvants
          • Non-Opioid Analgesics
          • Preoperative Planning and Management
          • Dental Procedures
          • References
        • Psychotropic Effects on Developmental Disabilities
          • Adminstration of AEDs
          • Clinical Effects of AEDs
          • Specific AEDs
            • Barbiturates
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Carbamazepine
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Phenytoin
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproic Acid
            • Vigabatrin
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • References
        • Surgery
          • Children with Medically Refractory Epilepsy
            • Case Illustrations
            • Rationale for Surgery
          • Corpus Callosotomy
          • Hemispherectomy
          • Implanted EEG Electrodes
          • Lobectomy Outlook
          • Neurostimulation for Epilepsy
          • Presurgical Evaluation
            • Pre-surgery Intracranial Monitoring: Stereo-EEG Versus Subdural Electrodes
          • Procedures
          • Radiosurgery for Epilepsy
          • Readings
          • Who is a Candidate?
        • Therapeutic and Generic Substitutions
          • Article : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians and Patients
          • Medicaid AED Rules for Generic Substitutions by State
          • Powerpoint Presentation : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians
        • Treatment
          • Therapy Goals
          • 9 Steps of Treatment
            • 1) Diagnosis
            • 2) When to Start
            • 3) Choosing Medication
            • 4) Initiating Treatment
            • 5) Detecting Noncompliance
            • 6) Managing Side Effects
            • 7) Interaction Awareness
            • 8) Monitoring AED Levels
            • 9) Discontinuing Treatment
          • AEDs and Pregnancy
          • Managing Psychosocial Stress
          • References
        • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • SUDEP, VNS and the FDA
        • A Potential New Therapy for Neonatal Seizures
        • Basic Science of EEG
        • Prospects for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Epilepsy
      • Refractory Seizures
        • Overview
          • Goals of Therapy
          • Importance of Seizure Freedom
          • Definition of Refractory Seizures
        • Epidemiology and Difficult-to-Treat Epilepsies
          • Epidemiology
          • Difficult to Treat or Progressive Epilepsy Syndromes
        • Potentially Remediable Causes
          • Wrong Diagnosis
          • Correct AED, but Inadequate Treatment
          • Noncompliance
          • Progressive Lesions
          • Seizure Clusters
          • Exacerbation by Medical Conditions
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
          • Exposure to Seizure Triggers
        • Actions to Take
          • Quality Care Indicators for Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Identify and Reduce Triggers
          • Diagnostic Evaluation
          • AED Changes
          • Surgical Evaluation
          • Non-Pharmacological Therapies
          • Seizure Preparedness; Safety Plan
      • Challenging Cases
        • Vigabatrin Treatment In A Patient With Visual Field Defects: What To Do?
        • Left Arm and Leg Shaking in a Patient with a History of Treated Syphilis
        • The Value of Diagnostic Persistence
        • Syncope In A Patient With Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Seizure Relapse 13 Years After Successful Surgery
        • If At First You Don’t Succeed...
        • Attacks of Rising Sensations, Pallor and Loss of Consciousness
        • Epileptic Falls Due to the Heart
        • Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis
      • Continuing Medical Education
        • Improved Patient Safety in Epilepsy Monitoring Units
        • SUDEP Counseling: Risk Management for Clinicians
      • Resource Library
        • Newly Published Epilepsy Related Books
        • Announcements
          • AAN & AES New Guidelines Focus on Women with Epilepsy and Pregnancy
          • CDC Releases Report on Effects of Swine Flu in Children
          • DBS Therapy for Epilepsy Received Approval for the Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy in Europe
          • Department of Defense Peer Reviewed Medical Research Program FY10 Program Announcements Released
          • Dr. Solomon L. Moshé Elected President of The International League Against Epilepsy
          • FDA Approves Generic Topamax to Prevent Seizures
          • FDA Comment Period on Rare Diseases
          • Info for All the Entrepreneurs Working in Epilepsy
          • Neurotech Bill Introduced in Both Senate and House of Representatives
          • New CDC Funding Opportunities for Epilepsy Research in 2010
          • Purple Day - Epilepsy Awareness Day - is March 26, 2010
          • Researchers Identify New Drug to Prevent Seizure Progression in Model of Epilepsy
          • Return of Yellow-Square Mysoline® (primidone, USP) 250 mg tablets
          • UCB Announces First Results From Phase III Brivaracetam Studies in Epilepsy
          • Upsher-Smith Laboratories Adds ITI-111 (Nasal Midazolam) to CNS Development Pipeline
          • Valproate (Depakote) Linked to Lower IQs in Babies
          • Zebinix Approved in the European Union
        • Epilepsy Medical Journal Links
        • How a National Institutes of Health Study Section Works
        • Anticonvulsant Screening Program
        • Conference News
          • 10th Antiepileptic Drug Trials Update: 2009
          • 2009 Epilepsy Pipeline Update
          • 2012 Epilepsy Pipeline Update Conference Webcasts
          • An Alternative to Open Surgery for Patients with Unilateral Medically Refractory Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Are Newer Antiepileptic Drugs Being Used in the Elderly?
          • Are Those with Epilepsy Excessive Caffeine Drinkers?
          • How Effective is the Atkins Diet in Treating Medically Refractory Seizures?
          • How Parents Respond to Their Child's First Seizure
          • Pathways to Discovery in Epilepsy Research: Rethinking the Quest for Cures - Hoyer Lecture
          • Polyunsaturated Fats for Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy: Disappointing Results
          • Some Patients with Epilepsy Drive Against Doctors’ Orders
        • Quality-of-Life Tools
        • Epilepsy & Behavior Articles
          • Behavioral Aspects of Frontal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Comorbid Psychiatric Symptoms in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Association with Chronicity of Epilepsy and Iimpact on Quality of Life
          • Delivering the Diagnosis of Psychogenic Pseudoseizures: Should the Neurologist or the Psychiatrist be Responsible?
          • Herbal Medicines and Epilepsy: The Potential for Benefit and Adverse Effects
          • Mood Disorders are Linked to Health-related Quality of Life in Epilepsy
          • Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Epilepsy in Children
          • Presentation, Evaluation, and Treatment of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus
          • Psychosis of Epilepsy: A Neurologist's Perspective
          • The Etiology and Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus
          • The Frontal Lobes, Epilepsy, and Behavior
          • The Use of Sertraline in Patients with Epilepsy: Is it Safe?
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy
          • When did Neurologists and Psychiatrists Stop Talking to Each Other?
        • Links
          • Books about Epilepsy
          • Brain Anatomy and Neurosciences
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          • Epilepsy Journals
          • Epilepsy Websites
          • Epilepsy-Related Organizations
          • General Health Websites
          • Informacíon en Español
          • Information in Other Languages
          • Information on the Ketogenic Diet
          • Online and Mail-Order Pharmacies
          • Prescription Drug Assistance Programs
          • Recreation and Leisure Activities
          • Recreational Therapy Organizations
          • Services for Children and Their Families
        • Newsletter Archive
        • Articles and Videos
          • Epilepsy Must Become a Higher Government Priority
          • Extended Release Oxcarbazepine and Topiramate Approved
          • FDA Approves Eisai's AMPA Receptor Antagonist
          • AES Meeting in San Antonio - Highlights of the Latest Research Blog
        • Sources of Funding
        • Stories from Professionals
          • A Gift of Hope
          • A Therapeutic Experience
          • A Treasure Beyond Price
          • Cultivating Compassion: One Doctor’s Journey
          • Do No Harm
          • Lending Support
          • Noncompliance: Breaking the Cycle
          • SUDEP: A Doctor’s Struggle
          • Safety First: A Nurse’s Story
          • The Wisdom of Our Decisions
        • Tables
          • AED-AED interactions
          • AEDs for Rectal Administration
          • Age of Onset of Epilepsy
          • Anesthetic Drugs and the EEG
          • Anticonvulsant and Antimicrobial Cytochrome P-450 Effects
          • Antidepressants and Seizure Incidence
          • Antidepressants and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Antiepileptic Drug Preparations Delivered via Enteric Tubes
          • Antiepileptic Drugs (AEDs) in Transplantation Patients
          • Antipsychotic Drugs and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Antipsychotics and Seizure Incidence
          • Anxiolytic Drugs and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Assessment of Seizures and Developmental Disability
          • Choosing Antiepileptic Drugs
          • Common AED/Non-AED Interactions
          • Common Symptoms of Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Common and Rare AED Side Effects
          • Complications of Status Epilepticus
          • Diagnostic Criteria For ADHD
          • Differential Diagnosis of Nocturnal Events
          • Differential Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus
          • Drug Treatment
          • Drugs that May Lower Seizure Threshold
          • Epidemiologic, Diagnostic, and Therapeutic Aspects of CNS Fungal Infections
          • Etiology of Seizures and Epilepsy
          • Factors of Late Epilepsy
          • Genetic Forms of Epilepsy
          • Guidelines for Status Epilepticus Treatment
          • IQ Scores Before and After Status Epilepticus
          • Interactions: Antidepressants and Antiepileptic Drugs
          • Loading and Maintenance of AEDs
          • Major Antimicrobial-Anticonvulsant Interactions
          • Mechanism of Action in Commonly Used AEDs
          • Metabolic Disorders of Infantile Seizures
          • Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Migraine without Aura
          • Pentobarbital-Induced Anesthesia
          • Pharmacokinetics and Aging
          • Pharmacokinetics of AEDs
          • Prodrome and Aura in Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Protocol for Treatment of Status Epilepticus
          • Recommended Medications
          • Responder Rates
          • Risk of Drug Removal by Hemodialysis
          • Stimulants Used to Treat ADHD
          • Toxins and Drugs Reported to Induce Seizures
          • Types of Status Epilepticus
          • Use of Felbamate with Intractable Epilepsy
          • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications
  • Schools and Seizure Preparedness
  • Seizure First Aid and Safety
    • First Aid for Seizures - Stay, Safe, Side
    • Videos to Learn Seizure First Aid
    • Adapting First Aid Plans
      • First Aid for Focal Aware (simple partial) Seizures
      • First Aid for Focal Impaired Awareness (complex partial) Seizures
      • First Aid for Absence Seizures
      • First Aid for Atonic and Tonic Seizures
      • First Aid for Tonic-Clonic Seizures
      • Seizures in Water
      • Seizures in Airplanes
      • What Else Can I Do to Help?
    • Responding to Seizures
      • Using Rescue Medications
      • Using VNS Magnet
    • Getting Emergency Help
    • Help After a Seizure
    • Staying Safe
      • Recognizing Risks
      • Types of Injuries
      • Safety at Home
      • Safety While Sleeping
      • Safety in the Kitchen
      • Safety at Work
      • Safety with Exercise and Sports
      • Safety at Camp
      • Infographic
      • Fall Safely
      • Preparing for Severe Weather and Other Emergencies and the Aftermath
    • Seizure Dogs
      • Seizure Dogs: Q&A
      • Seizure Dogs: Children and Parent Partners
      • Personal Experience with a Seizure Dog: A conversation with Allison and Carol
      • Personal Story of a Seizure Dog: Spencer and Lucia
      • Perspective: Training Seizure Dogs
      • General Rights of Individuals with Service Animals

Living with Epilepsy

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      • Our Wellness Institute Partner - The Charlie Foundation
      • Nutrition and Seizure Control
      • The Charlie Foundation's Pantry
        • Dill Pickle & Avocado Relish
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        • Enjoy Asparagus in Spring
        • Snap Pea and Spring Onion Salad
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        • The Charlie Bar
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  • Epilepsy and ...
    • Parents and Caregivers
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      • About Newborns and Infants
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      • About Kids
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        • Diagnosing Seizures
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      • About Teens with Epilepsy
        • Driving and Transportation
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      • Talking to Kids about Epilepsy
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        • Educating Teens and Adults
        • Explaining Epilepsy to Children and Family
        • Fighting Stigma
      • Can Children Die from Epilepsy?
      • Childcare Professionals and Babysitters' Guide
        • Babysitter's Guide to First Aid
        • Managing Prolonged Seizures in Children
      • Parents Helping Parents
    • Young People
      • What Is Epilepsy?
      • Children Ages 5 - 11 and Parents
      • Pre-teen and Teenage Girls with Epilepsy
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      • School and Learning Difficulties for Teens with Epilepsy
      • FAQ for Teens
      • Living With Epilepsy
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      • Epilepsy Quiz
        • Epilepsy Quiz - Answer Sheet
      • Transition of Medical Care
    • Women
      • Women FAQ
      • For Young Women
        • Menstruation
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        • Contraception
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        • Hormones And Epilepsy
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        • Does Epilepsy Affect Fertility?
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        • Discussion Checklist
      • FDA Guidelines
      • Menopause And Epilepsy
      • Studies and Registries for Women
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      • Types of Seizures
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      • Trabajando Con Su Equipo Médico
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      • Mas Información Y Recursos
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      • Veterans Program
    • Professional Health Care Providers
      • Seizures in Adults (Connectors Project)
      • AAN/AES SUDEP Guideline for Professionals
      • Videos About Epilepsy and Cannabis
      • Seizure Dogs: What Providers Need to Know
      • Hallway Conversations
      • GW Grand Rounds Series
      • Epilepsy Innovation Institute
      • Epilepsy Foundation Pipeline Conferences
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session I & II
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session III
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session IV
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session V, VI and Lifetime Accelerator Award
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session VII
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session VIII
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session IX, Shark Tank Competition and Closing Remarks
      • Joint Content Partnership with AES
        • Epilepsy Comorbidities
        • How Device Trials Work
        • Patient Safety in the Epilepsy Monitoring Unit
        • PAME Conference Wrapup Podcast
        • Podcast on Epilepsy Surgery
        • SUDEP FAQ for Professionals
        • Biomarkers in Epilepsy: The Latest Research
        • Cannabinoids in Medically Refractory Epilepsy
        • Epilepsy Quality Measures
        • First Seizure Guidelines
        • Generic Antiepileptic Drugs - Results of FDA Research
        • My Seizures, Know More
        • New Status Epilepticus Guidelines
        • New Treatment Strategies For Neurodevelopmental Epilepsies
        • New-Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus (NORSE)
        • Obstacles in Epilepsy Diagnosis: If You Don't Ask, They Won't Tell
        • Podcast on Electrophysiological Biomarkers
        • Seizure Emergencies
        • The Complex Relationship Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Epilepsy
      • Educational Webcasts & Web Links
        • AED Mechanisms of Actions Roundtable
        • Adverse Effects Related to Medication Roundtable
        • An Algorithm on the Diagnosis of Nonlesional Epilepsy
        • An Algorithm on the Treatment of Epilepsy in Patients with a Normal MRI
        • Treatment for Patients with Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome Roundtable
      • About Epilepsy & Seizures
        • EpiNet Seizure Classification Teaching Module
        • Classifying Seizures
          • Distinguishing Factors
          • Generalized Seizures
            • Absence
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            • Causes
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              • Video-EEG Monitoring
            • Talking to the Patient
            • Treatment and Outlook
            • Readings
          • References
          • Status Epilepticus
            • Convulsive SE
              • Complications and Prognosis
              • Symptoms and Causes
            • Less Obvious SE
            • Diagnosing SE
            • Managing Status Epilepticus
              • Phenytoin and Fosphenytoin
              • Valproic Acid
              • Phenobarbital
              • Diazepam
              • Lorazepam
              • Midazolam and Clonazepam
              • Continuous Anesthesia for Refractory SE
              • Medical Treatment of Other Forms of SE
              • Troubleshooting
            • Readings
        • Overview of Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Convulsions
          • Benign Rolandic
          • CEOP
          • Childhood Absence (Pyknolepsy)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
          • Grand Mal Seizures on Awakening
          • Infant Benign Myoclonic
          • Infant Severe Myoclonic
          • Juvenile Myoclonic
          • Myoclonic-Astatic Seizures
          • Ring Chromosome 20 Syndrome
            • Ring Chromosome 20 Symptom List
          • Unverricht-Lundborg Disease
          • References
        • Neonatal Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Seizures (Non-Familial)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
        • Idiopathic Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes in Infancy
          • Benign Familial and Non-Familial Infantile Seizures (Watanabe-Vigevano Syndrome)
          • Benign Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Generalized Epilepsies with Febrile Seizures Plus (GEFS ; Autosomal Dominant Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus)
        • Epileptic Encephalopathies in Infancy and Childhood
          • Hypothalamic (Gelastic) Epilepsy
          • Myoclonic Status in Non-Progressive Encephalopathies
        • Severe Neocortical Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy and Childhood
          • Epilepsia Partialis Continua of Kozhevnikov
          • Hemiconvulsion-Hemiplegia Epilepsy Syndrome
          • Kozhevnikov-Rasmussen Syndrome
          • Migrating Focal Seizures of Infancy
        • Benign Childhood Focal Seizures
          • Benign Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (Rolandic Seizures)
          • Gastaut-Type Idiopathic Childhood Occipital Epilepsy
        • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies
          • Childhood Absence Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures Only
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Phantom Absences
          • Juvenile Absence Epilepsy
          • Perioral Myoclonia with Absences
        • Familial (Autosomal Dominant) Focal Epilepsies
          • Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE)
          • Familial Autosomal Dominant Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (Autosomal Dominant Focal Epilepsy with Auditory Features)
          • Familial Focal Epilepsy with Variable Foci
          • Familial Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Symptomatic and Probably Symptomatic Focal Epilepsies
          • Common Frontal Lobe Seizures Depending on Localization
          • Frontal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with Hippocampal Sclerosis
          • Occipital Lobe Epilepsies
          • Parietal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE)
        • Reflex Seizures and Related Epileptic Syndromes
          • Idiopathic Photosensitive Occipital Lobe Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Reading Epilepsy
          • Jeavons Syndrome (Eyelid Myoclonia with Absences)
          • Photosensitive Epilepsy
          • Self-Induced Seizures
          • Startle Epilepsy (Startle-Induced Seizures)
          • Television Epilepsy
          • Video Game-Induced Seizures (VGS)
        • Hormones and Epilepsy
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
            • Patterns and Causes
            • Evaluation
            • Treatment
          • Effects on Other Hormones
          • Female Reproductive Endocrine Function
            • Evaluating Reproductive Dysfunction
          • Female Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Male Reproductive Endocrine Function
          • Male Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Menarche
          • Menopause and Perimenopause
          • Other Hormonal Systems and AEDs
          • Postictal Prolactin Testing
          • Reproductive issues
            • Contraception
            • Fertility
            • Obstetrical Risks
            • Seizures During Pregnancy
            • AED Management During Pregnancy
            • Teratogenicity
            • Monitoring Pregnancy in Women with Epilepsy
            • Breastfeeding
          • References
        • Psychiatric and Behavioral Aspects
          • Effects of Treatment
          • Evaluating Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Influence of Seizure Types
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          • Psychiatric Predispositions
          • Psychiatric Symptoms
            • Depression
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            • Forced Normalization
            • Aggression
            • Other Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Treatment of Psychiatric Complications
          • Readings
      • Co-Existing Disorders
        • Brain Tumors
          • Pathophysiology
          • Clues to anatomic location
          • Neuroimaging
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          • AED Treatment
          • Surgical Planning and Prep
          • Postoperative Complications
          • Future Trends
          • References
        • Cardiac Disorders
          • Arrhythmias
          • Assessment: Neurologic or Cardiac?
          • Complications
          • Congenital Heart Disease
          • Managing Cardiac Disease
          • Managing Epilepsy
          • Myocardial Infarction
          • References
          • Valve Disease
        • Cerebrovascular Disease
          • Ischemic Etiologies
          • Hemorrhagic Etiologies
          • Other Etiologies
          • Epidemiology of Stroke
          • Incidence and Risk Factors for Seizures
          • Types of Seizures
          • Assessment of Seizures
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Treatment of Seizures
            • Phenytoin
            • Phenobarbital
            • Carbamazepine
            • Valproate
            • Other AEDs
            • Special Situations
          • Prognosis
          • References
        • Developmental Disorders
          • Childhood-specific epilepsies with DD
            • Mechanisms of seizure-induced brain damage
              • Recurrent Seizures: Damage to the Developing Brain
              • Status Epilepticus : Damage to the Developing Brain
            • References
          • Metabolic and Genetic Disorders
            • Family History
            • Physical Examination
            • Neurologic Examination
            • Age of Onset
              • Age of Onset - table
            • Seizure Frequency and Types
            • Diagnostic Testing
              • Diagnostic Testing - table
            • Identifying the Locus
              • Identifying the Locus - table
            • Treatment
            • References
        • Gastrointestinal & Liver Disease
          • Gastrointestinal disease
          • Liver Disease
          • Effects on specific AEDs
            • Carbamazepine
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Phenobarbital
            • Phenytoin
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproic acid
            • Zonisamide
          • References
          • Choosing and monitoring AEDs
        • Head Trauma & Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
          • Management Guidelines
          • Mechanisms of Brain Injury
            • Biochemical Effects
            • Can Responses be Altered?
            • Cellular Mechanisms of Epileptogenesis
            • Genetic and Molecular Factors
          • Prevention and Prophylaxis
          • References
          • Risks
        • Hematologic Disorders
          • Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy
          • Aplastic Anemia
          • Bone Marrow Transplantation
          • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
          • Folate Deficiency
          • Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
          • Newborn Hemorrhagic Disease
          • Proliferative Disorders
          • References
          • Sickle Cell Disease
          • Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
        • Infectious States & Seizures
          • Amebic Parasitic Infections
          • Bacterial Meningitis
            • Diagnosis
            • Epidemiology
            • Seizure Complications
            • Treatment
          • Epidural Abscess
          • Epilepsy & TB treatment
          • Epilepsy as a Consequence of Infection
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Fungal Infections
          • Helminthic parasitic Infections
            • Angiostrongyliasis
            • Echinococcosis
            • Neurocysticercosis
            • Schistosomiasis
            • Strongyloidiasis
            • Toxocariasis
            • Trichinosis
          • Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients
          • Intraparenchymal Abscess
          • Lyme Disease
            • Diagnosis
            • Early Disseminated Infection
            • Early Localized Infection
            • Late Disseminated Infection
            • Treatment
          • Malaria
          • Mycobacterial Infections
            • CNS Tuberculoma
            • Tuberculous Meningitis
          • Mycoplasmal Infections
          • Noninfectious Causes of Meningitis
          • Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
          • References
          • Seizure Complications of Antibacterial Treatment
          • Slow Virus Infections
          • Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
          • Subdural Empyema
          • Syphilis
          • Toxoplasmosis
          • Trypanosomiasis
          • Viral Infections
            • Arboviruses
            • Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
            • Enteroviruses
            • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
            • HHV-6 encephalitis
            • Herpes Encephalitis
            • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
            • Rabies
            • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications - table
        • Inflammatory Disorders
          • Crohn's Disease
        • Metabolic Disorders
          • Adrenal Insufficiency
          • Electrolyte Abnormalities
            • Hypernatremia
            • Hypocalcemia
            • Hypoglycemia
            • Hypomagnesemia
            • Hyponatremia
            • Nonketotic Hyperglycemia
          • Hyperthyroidism
          • Hypoparathyroidism
          • Inborn Errors
            • Gaucher's Disease
            • Hepatic Porphyria
            • Mucopolysaccharidoses
            • Niemann-Pick Disease
            • Phenylketonuria
          • References
        • Migraine & Epilepsy
          • Classification
          • Clinical Features
          • Epidemiologic Connections
          • Headache as a Consequence of Seizures
          • Migraine & Epilepsy - table
          • Migraine-Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Phases
          • References
          • The EEG
          • Treatment Considerations
          • Variants Confused with Epilepsy
        • Renal Disorders
          • Aluminum Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Correction for Hemodialysis
          • Dialysis Disequilibrium Syndrome
          • Dialysis Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Drug Dosing Rate Adjustments
          • Effects of Hemodialysis
          • Effects on Specific AEDs
            • Carbamazepine
            • Clonazepam
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Fosphenytoin
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Phenobarbital
            • Phenytoin
            • Primidone
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproate
            • Zonisamide
          • Effects on Steady-State Plasma Concentration
          • Physiology of Drug Clearance
          • References
          • Uremic Encephalopathy
        • Sleep Disorders
          • Approach to Daytime Sleepiness
          • Approach to Insomnia
          • Classification
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Effects of AEDs on Sleep
          • Effects of IEDs on Sleep
          • Effects of Seizures on Sleep
          • Fundamentals
          • Idiopathic CNS Hypersomnia
          • Insomnia
          • Narcolepsy
          • Periodic Limb Movements and Restless Legs Syndrome
          • References
          • Sleep Apnea
        • Transplantation & Seizures
          • Acute Management
          • Bone Marrow
          • Chronic Management
          • Diagnostic Approach
          • Heart
          • Kidney
          • Liver
          • Lung
          • Pancreas
          • References
        • Pulmonary Disorders
          • Focal Cortical or Limbic-Onset Seizures
          • Generalized Seizures or SE
          • References
          • Respiratory Effects of AEDs
          • Respiratory Insufficiency
          • Sleep Apnea Syndrome
          • Theophylline Toxicity
      • Specialized Populations
        • Men
          • Effects of AEDs
          • Reproductive Endocrine Disorders
          • Male Infertility
          • Male Contraception
          • Effects of AEDs on Male Maturation
          • Effects on Sexual Function
          • A Commentary: The Effects of AEDS on Male Hormones
          • References
        • Seniors
          • Common Causes
          • Strokes
          • Seizure Presentation
          • Causes of Episodic Neurologic Dysfunction
          • Evaluation of First Seizure
          • First Seizure Treatment
          • Choosing AEDs for Seniors
          • Pharmacokinetics
          • Prognosis and Quality of Life
          • Long-term Management
          • Surgery
          • Status Epilepticus
          • References
        • Women
          • Physician's Discussion Checklist for Women with Epilepsy
          • Discussion Guide
          • New Evidence for Heightened Obstetrical Risk in Women with Epilepsy
      • Diagnosis & Treatment
        • The Epilepsy Clinic–Test Your Clinical Knowledge
          • AED Withdrawl and CAAEEG
          • Artifact Read as GSW in Vertigo
          • DT Tractography
          • Dementia and EEG
          • Epilepsy and Alzheimer’s Dementia
          • Generic Drugs and Epilepsy
          • How Can EEG Help After a Seizure?
          • IED Frequency and Seizure Severity
          • Ictal Asystole
          • Jeavon's Syndrome
          • Lambda Waves
          • Left ATL and Memory Outcome
          • Post TLE AED Withdrawl
          • Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy
          • Rasmussen Encephalitis and Hemispherectomy
          • Rett Syndrome
          • SISCOM
          • Spells and Abnormal EEG
          • Spells and Cerebrovascular Disease
          • The Interictal-Ictal Continuum
          • Wada Testing and Functional MRI
          • What are the Pitfalls in the Diagnosis of Epilepsy in the Elderly?
          • What is the Importance of Classification?
          • When Do You Consider Epilepsy Drug Resistant?
          • Why Delay?
          • Wickets and Surgical Delay
          • iEEG and discordant scEEG
          • mTLE and Seizures after LATL
        • Epilepsy Care Quality Measures
          • Evaluation of a First Seizure
          • New Onset Epilepsy
          • Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Women of Childbearing Potential
          • Patient-Identified Quality Measures
        • Disgnostic Evaluation of Autoimmune Epilepsy
        • Drugs & Their Contribution to Seizures
          • Metabolic Encephalopathy
          • Surgery and Anesthesia
          • Antimicrobial Drugs and Immunosuppression
          • Differentiating Nonepileptic Behavior
          • Antidepressants
          • Antipsychotics
          • Anxiolytics and Hypnotics
          • Amphetamines
          • AEDs that can Cause Seizures
          • OTC and Herbal Medicines
          • Alcohol
          • Cocaine
          • Illicit Stimulants
          • Opioids and CNS Depressants
          • References
        • Emergency Department Care
          • Acutely Seizing Patients
            • Absence Seizures
            • Myoclonic Seizures
            • Nonepileptic Psychogenic Seizures
          • Approach to Epilepsy
            • Treating Convulsive SE
          • First or Unknown Seizure History Visits
          • Non-Seizure Visits
          • Post-Seizure Visits
            • Abnormal Neuroimaging
            • Abnormal Postictal Labs
            • Abnormal Postictal Neurologic Exam
            • Changes in Duration, Frequency, or Type
          • References
        • ICU Care
          • Electively Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • Electively Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • Emergently Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • Emergently Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • References
        • Ketogenic Diet
        • Non-Drug Therapies
        • Procedures in Epilepsy Patients
          • Premedication
          • Anesthesia
          • General Anesthetics
            • Barbiturates
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Enflurane
            • Etomidate
            • Ketamine
            • Opioids
            • Other Inhalational Agents
            • Propofol
          • Local Anesthesia
            • Lidocaine
            • Other Local Anesthetics
          • Anesthetic Adjuvants
          • Non-Opioid Analgesics
          • Preoperative Planning and Management
          • Dental Procedures
          • References
        • Psychotropic Effects on Developmental Disabilities
          • Adminstration of AEDs
          • Clinical Effects of AEDs
          • Specific AEDs
            • Barbiturates
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Carbamazepine
            • Ethosuximide
            • Felbamate
            • Gabapentin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Phenytoin
            • Tiagabine
            • Topiramate
            • Valproic Acid
            • Vigabatrin
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • References
        • Surgery
          • Children with Medically Refractory Epilepsy
            • Case Illustrations
            • Rationale for Surgery
          • Corpus Callosotomy
          • Hemispherectomy
          • Implanted EEG Electrodes
          • Lobectomy Outlook
          • Neurostimulation for Epilepsy
          • Presurgical Evaluation
            • Pre-surgery Intracranial Monitoring: Stereo-EEG Versus Subdural Electrodes
          • Procedures
          • Radiosurgery for Epilepsy
          • Readings
          • Who is a Candidate?
        • Therapeutic and Generic Substitutions
          • Article : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians and Patients
          • Medicaid AED Rules for Generic Substitutions by State
          • Powerpoint Presentation : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians
        • Treatment
          • Therapy Goals
          • 9 Steps of Treatment
            • 1) Diagnosis
            • 2) When to Start
            • 3) Choosing Medication
            • 4) Initiating Treatment
            • 5) Detecting Noncompliance
            • 6) Managing Side Effects
            • 7) Interaction Awareness
            • 8) Monitoring AED Levels
            • 9) Discontinuing Treatment
          • AEDs and Pregnancy
          • Managing Psychosocial Stress
          • References
        • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • SUDEP, VNS and the FDA
        • A Potential New Therapy for Neonatal Seizures
        • Basic Science of EEG
        • Prospects for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Epilepsy
      • Refractory Seizures
        • Overview
          • Goals of Therapy
          • Importance of Seizure Freedom
          • Definition of Refractory Seizures
        • Epidemiology and Difficult-to-Treat Epilepsies
          • Epidemiology
          • Difficult to Treat or Progressive Epilepsy Syndromes
        • Potentially Remediable Causes
          • Wrong Diagnosis
          • Correct AED, but Inadequate Treatment
          • Noncompliance
          • Progressive Lesions
          • Seizure Clusters
          • Exacerbation by Medical Conditions
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
          • Exposure to Seizure Triggers
        • Actions to Take
          • Quality Care Indicators for Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Identify and Reduce Triggers
          • Diagnostic Evaluation
          • AED Changes
          • Surgical Evaluation
          • Non-Pharmacological Therapies
          • Seizure Preparedness; Safety Plan
      • Challenging Cases
        • Vigabatrin Treatment In A Patient With Visual Field Defects: What To Do?
        • Left Arm and Leg Shaking in a Patient with a History of Treated Syphilis
        • The Value of Diagnostic Persistence
        • Syncope In A Patient With Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Seizure Relapse 13 Years After Successful Surgery
        • If At First You Don’t Succeed...
        • Attacks of Rising Sensations, Pallor and Loss of Consciousness
        • Epileptic Falls Due to the Heart
        • Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis
      • Continuing Medical Education
        • Improved Patient Safety in Epilepsy Monitoring Units
        • SUDEP Counseling: Risk Management for Clinicians
      • Resource Library
        • Newly Published Epilepsy Related Books
        • Announcements
          • AAN & AES New Guidelines Focus on Women with Epilepsy and Pregnancy
          • CDC Releases Report on Effects of Swine Flu in Children
          • DBS Therapy for Epilepsy Received Approval for the Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy in Europe
          • Department of Defense Peer Reviewed Medical Research Program FY10 Program Announcements Released
          • Dr. Solomon L. Moshé Elected President of The International League Against Epilepsy
          • FDA Approves Generic Topamax to Prevent Seizures
          • FDA Comment Period on Rare Diseases
          • Info for All the Entrepreneurs Working in Epilepsy
          • Neurotech Bill Introduced in Both Senate and House of Representatives
          • New CDC Funding Opportunities for Epilepsy Research in 2010
          • Purple Day - Epilepsy Awareness Day - is March 26, 2010
          • Researchers Identify New Drug to Prevent Seizure Progression in Model of Epilepsy
          • Return of Yellow-Square Mysoline® (primidone, USP) 250 mg tablets
          • UCB Announces First Results From Phase III Brivaracetam Studies in Epilepsy
          • Upsher-Smith Laboratories Adds ITI-111 (Nasal Midazolam) to CNS Development Pipeline
          • Valproate (Depakote) Linked to Lower IQs in Babies
          • Zebinix Approved in the European Union
        • Epilepsy Medical Journal Links
        • How a National Institutes of Health Study Section Works
        • Anticonvulsant Screening Program
        • Conference News
          • 10th Antiepileptic Drug Trials Update: 2009
          • 2009 Epilepsy Pipeline Update
          • 2012 Epilepsy Pipeline Update Conference Webcasts
          • An Alternative to Open Surgery for Patients with Unilateral Medically Refractory Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Are Newer Antiepileptic Drugs Being Used in the Elderly?
          • Are Those with Epilepsy Excessive Caffeine Drinkers?
          • How Effective is the Atkins Diet in Treating Medically Refractory Seizures?
          • How Parents Respond to Their Child's First Seizure
          • Pathways to Discovery in Epilepsy Research: Rethinking the Quest for Cures - Hoyer Lecture
          • Polyunsaturated Fats for Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy: Disappointing Results
          • Some Patients with Epilepsy Drive Against Doctors’ Orders
        • Quality-of-Life Tools
        • Epilepsy & Behavior Articles
          • Behavioral Aspects of Frontal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Comorbid Psychiatric Symptoms in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Association with Chronicity of Epilepsy and Iimpact on Quality of Life
          • Delivering the Diagnosis of Psychogenic Pseudoseizures: Should the Neurologist or the Psychiatrist be Responsible?
          • Herbal Medicines and Epilepsy: The Potential for Benefit and Adverse Effects
          • Mood Disorders are Linked to Health-related Quality of Life in Epilepsy
          • Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Epilepsy in Children
          • Presentation, Evaluation, and Treatment of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus
          • Psychosis of Epilepsy: A Neurologist's Perspective
          • The Etiology and Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus
          • The Frontal Lobes, Epilepsy, and Behavior
          • The Use of Sertraline in Patients with Epilepsy: Is it Safe?
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy
          • When did Neurologists and Psychiatrists Stop Talking to Each Other?
        • Links
          • Books about Epilepsy
          • Brain Anatomy and Neurosciences
          • Career and Rehabilitation
          • Devices and Equipment
          • Epilepsy Journals
          • Epilepsy Websites
          • Epilepsy-Related Organizations
          • General Health Websites
          • Informacíon en Español
          • Information in Other Languages
          • Information on the Ketogenic Diet
          • Online and Mail-Order Pharmacies
          • Prescription Drug Assistance Programs
          • Recreation and Leisure Activities
          • Recreational Therapy Organizations
          • Services for Children and Their Families
        • Newsletter Archive
        • Articles and Videos
          • Epilepsy Must Become a Higher Government Priority
          • Extended Release Oxcarbazepine and Topiramate Approved
          • FDA Approves Eisai's AMPA Receptor Antagonist
          • AES Meeting in San Antonio - Highlights of the Latest Research Blog
        • Sources of Funding
        • Stories from Professionals
          • A Gift of Hope
          • A Therapeutic Experience
          • A Treasure Beyond Price
          • Cultivating Compassion: One Doctor’s Journey
          • Do No Harm
          • Lending Support
          • Noncompliance: Breaking the Cycle
          • SUDEP: A Doctor’s Struggle
          • Safety First: A Nurse’s Story
          • The Wisdom of Our Decisions
        • Tables
          • AED-AED interactions
          • AEDs for Rectal Administration
          • Age of Onset of Epilepsy
          • Anesthetic Drugs and the EEG
          • Anticonvulsant and Antimicrobial Cytochrome P-450 Effects
          • Antidepressants and Seizure Incidence
          • Antidepressants and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Antiepileptic Drug Preparations Delivered via Enteric Tubes
          • Antiepileptic Drugs (AEDs) in Transplantation Patients
          • Antipsychotic Drugs and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Antipsychotics and Seizure Incidence
          • Anxiolytic Drugs and their Metabolizing Enzymes
          • Assessment of Seizures and Developmental Disability
          • Choosing Antiepileptic Drugs
          • Common AED/Non-AED Interactions
          • Common Symptoms of Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Common and Rare AED Side Effects
          • Complications of Status Epilepticus
          • Diagnostic Criteria For ADHD
          • Differential Diagnosis of Nocturnal Events
          • Differential Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus
          • Drug Treatment
          • Drugs that May Lower Seizure Threshold
          • Epidemiologic, Diagnostic, and Therapeutic Aspects of CNS Fungal Infections
          • Etiology of Seizures and Epilepsy
          • Factors of Late Epilepsy
          • Genetic Forms of Epilepsy
          • Guidelines for Status Epilepticus Treatment
          • IQ Scores Before and After Status Epilepticus
          • Interactions: Antidepressants and Antiepileptic Drugs
          • Loading and Maintenance of AEDs
          • Major Antimicrobial-Anticonvulsant Interactions
          • Mechanism of Action in Commonly Used AEDs
          • Metabolic Disorders of Infantile Seizures
          • Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Migraine without Aura
          • Pentobarbital-Induced Anesthesia
          • Pharmacokinetics and Aging
          • Pharmacokinetics of AEDs
          • Prodrome and Aura in Migraine and Epilepsy
          • Protocol for Treatment of Status Epilepticus
          • Recommended Medications
          • Responder Rates
          • Risk of Drug Removal by Hemodialysis
          • Stimulants Used to Treat ADHD
          • Toxins and Drugs Reported to Induce Seizures
          • Types of Status Epilepticus
          • Use of Felbamate with Intractable Epilepsy
          • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications
  • Schools and Seizure Preparedness
  • Seizure First Aid and Safety
    • First Aid for Seizures - Stay, Safe, Side
    • Videos to Learn Seizure First Aid
    • Adapting First Aid Plans
      • First Aid for Focal Aware (simple partial) Seizures
      • First Aid for Focal Impaired Awareness (complex partial) Seizures
      • First Aid for Absence Seizures
      • First Aid for Atonic and Tonic Seizures
      • First Aid for Tonic-Clonic Seizures
      • Seizures in Water
      • Seizures in Airplanes
      • What Else Can I Do to Help?
    • Responding to Seizures
      • Using Rescue Medications
      • Using VNS Magnet
    • Getting Emergency Help
    • Help After a Seizure
    • Staying Safe
      • Recognizing Risks
      • Types of Injuries
      • Safety at Home
      • Safety While Sleeping
      • Safety in the Kitchen
      • Safety at Work
      • Safety with Exercise and Sports
      • Safety at Camp
      • Infographic
      • Fall Safely
      • Preparing for Severe Weather and Other Emergencies and the Aftermath
    • Seizure Dogs
      • Seizure Dogs: Q&A
      • Seizure Dogs: Children and Parent Partners
      • Personal Experience with a Seizure Dog: A conversation with Allison and Carol
      • Personal Story of a Seizure Dog: Spencer and Lucia
      • Perspective: Training Seizure Dogs
      • General Rights of Individuals with Service Animals
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Authored By: 
David Jost
Authored Date: 
03/2016

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