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    • About Epilepsy: The Basics
    • Types of Seizures
    • Types of Epilepsy Syndromes
    • Epilepsy Due to Specific Causes
    • Triggers of Seizures
    • Diagnosis
    • Treating Seizures and Epilepsy
    • Seizure First Aid and Safety
    • Managing Your Epilepsy
    • Seizure and Epilepsy News
    • Early Death and SUDEP
    • Find a Clinical Trial
    • Refractory Epilepsy (Difficult to Treat Seizures)
    • Challenges with Epilepsy
    • Special Populations
    • Learning Network
    • Professionals
    • Schools and Seizure Preparedness
  • Living with Epilepsy
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  • Learn
    • About Epilepsy: The Basics
      • What is Epilepsy?
        • A Revised Definition of Epilepsy
      • What is a Seizure?
      • What Happens During a Seizure?
      • Who Gets Epilepsy?
      • What Causes a Seizure?
      • What Are the Risk Factors?
      • Is Epilepsy Inherited?
      • Will I Always Have Epilepsy?
      • How Serious Are Seizures?
      • Seizures in Adults
        • Diagnosing Epilepsy in Adults
        • Treating Epilepsy in Adults
        • Quality Care and Quality of Life
      • Facts about Seizures and Epilepsy
    • Types of Seizures
      • Focal Aware Seizures
      • Focal Impaired Awareness Seizures
      • Bilateral Tonic-clonic Seizures
      • Absence Seizures
      • Atypical Absence Seizures
      • Tonic-clonic Seizures
      • Atonic Seizures
      • Clonic Seizures
      • Tonic Seizures
      • Myoclonic Seizures
      • Gelastic and Dacrystic Seizures
      • Febrile Seizures
      • Refractory Seizures
      • New Terms for Seizure Classification
    • Types of Epilepsy Syndromes
      • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
      • Progressive Myoclonic Epilepsies
      • Panayiotopoulos Syndrome
      • Ohtahara Syndrome
      • Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (LGS)
        • Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome Overview
        • Who develops LGS?
        • Characteristics
        • Causes
        • Seizure Types
        • Seizure Emergencies
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
          • Seizure Medications
          • Dietary Therapies
          • Surgery
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • LGS Treatment Roundtable
        • Family Issues
        • Resources
      • Landau-Kleffner Syndrome
      • Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy
      • Juvenile Absence Epilepsy
      • Infantile Spasms (West's Syndrome) and Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
        • Characteristics
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
        • Outlook
        • Resources and References
      • Frontal Lobe Epilepsy
      • Epileptic Encephalopathy With Continuous Spike and Wave During Sleep (CSWS)
      • Epilepsy with Myoclonic-Absences
      • Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures Alone
      • Epilepsy with Eyelid Myoclonia (Jeavons Syndrome)
      • Epilepsy of Infancy with Migrating Focal Seizures
      • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy (EME)
      • Dravet Syndrome
      • Doose Syndrome
      • Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes aka Benign Rolandic Epilepsy
      • Childhood Absence Epilepsy
      • Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE)
      • Reflex Epilepsies
        • Sunflower Syndrome - A Photosensitive Epilepsy
    • Epilepsy Due to Specific Causes
      • Genetics: The Basics
      • Epilepsy and Genes
      • Genetic Counseling
      • Genetic Testing and Epilepsy
      • Genetics Resources
      • Angelman Syndrome
      • CDKL5 Disorder
      • Glut1 Deficiency Syndrome
      • PCDH19 Epilepsy
      • Ring Chromosome 20 Syndrome
      • SCN8A-Related Epilepsy
      • TBCK-related ID Syndrome
      • Hypothalamic Hamartoma
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • Neurocutaneous Syndromes
        • Sturge Weber Syndrome (Encephalotrigeminal Angiomatosis)
        • Neurofibromatosis Type 1
        • Incontinentia Pigmenti
        • Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC)
      • Seizures and Multiple Sclerosis
      • Autoimmune Epilepsy
      • Autoimmune Epilepsies: Signs and Symptoms
      • Rasmussen's Syndrome
    • Triggers of Seizures
      • Missed Medicines
      • Lack of Sleep and Epilepsy
      • Stress and Epilepsy
      • Alcohol
      • Drug Abuse
      • Menstruation
      • Photosensitivity and Epilepsy
      • Other Triggers of Seizures
      • Over-The-Counter Medications
      • Nutritional Deficiencies
    • Diagnosis
      • Is this a seizure?
      • Diagnosis 101
        • Why See a Doctor?
        • What Kind of Doctor is Best?
        • What Will the Doctor Do?
        • What Tests Are Needed?
        • Why Is My Doctor Ordering Other Tests to Evaluate My Seizures?
        • What If It's Not Epilepsy?
      • You and Your Healthcare Team
        • Visiting The Doctor
        • Nurses
        • Physician Assistants
        • EEG Technologists
        • Neuropsychologists
        • Psychologists
        • Social Workers And Counselors
        • Psychiatrists
        • Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors
        • Pharmacists
        • Occupational Therapists
        • Second Opinions
      • Medical History
      • Physical Exam
      • Neurological Exam
      • EEG
        • What If It's Normal?
        • Procedure
        • Which EEG type is best for you?
        • Ambulatory EEG
        • Video EEG
        • Dry Electrode Headset
        • Where It's Performed
        • Special Electrodes
        • How to Read an EEG
      • Looking at the Brain
        • Computed Tomography (CT)
        • MRI
          • Why it's Performed
          • MRI Procedure
        • SPECT
        • PET
        • MEG (magnetoencephalography)
      • Imitators of Epilepsy
        • Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures (PNES): Cause, Diagnosis and Treatment
        • FAQ: Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures or Events
    • Treating Seizures and Epilepsy
      • Treatment 101: The Basics
        • What’s First?
        • What You Need To Do
        • If First Medicine Doesn't Work
        • When Medicines Do Not Work
      • Seizure Medications List
      • Seizure and Epilepsy Medicines
        • Treatments of Status Epilepticus and Cluster Seizures: Available and Emerging Therapies
        • First Seizure
        • Choosing a First Medicine
        • Finding the Best Dosage
        • How Medicines Work
        • How Long Until It Works?
        • Blood Testing
        • Common Concerns
        • Importance of Adherence
        • Side Effects
        • Drug Interactions
        • Stopping Medication
        • How to Read A Package Insert
        • Treatment Guidelines
        • Seizure Medications and Pregnancy
          • Antiepileptic Drug Pregnancy Registry
      • Surgery
        • Overview of Epilepsy Surgery
        • The Epilepsy Center
        • Who can surgery help?
        • Impact of Early Epilepsy Surgery
          • Interview with Megan about Her Family's Surgery Story
        • Goals and Expectations
        • Risks and Benefits
        • Tests Before Surgery
          • Video EEG Monitoring with Invasive Electrodes
          • Brain Mapping: Electrical Stimulation
          • Wada Test
        • Types of Epilepsy Surgery
          • LITT (Thermal Ablation)
        • Preparing for Surgery
        • Recovery and Life After Surgery
        • Preparing for and Recovery After Your Child’s Epilepsy Surgery
        • Epilepsy Surgery: Fast Facts
      • Dietary Therapies
        • Ketogenic Diet
        • KetoNews
        • Modified Atkins Diet
        • Low Glycemic Index Treatment
        • MCT (Medium Chain Triglyceride) Diet
      • Devices
        • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • Placement, Programming and Safety of Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS)
        • Responsive Neurostimulation
          • Placement, Programming and Safety of Responsive Neurostimulation (RNS)
        • Deep Brain Stimulation
          • Placement, Programming and Safety of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
        • External Trigeminal Nerve Stimulation
      • Other Treatment Approaches
        • Herbal Therapy
        • Medical Marijuana and Epilepsy
          • True or False Quiz: 10 Things to Know about Medical Cannabis
          • 2017 Glossary of Cannabinoid Terms
      • Clinical Trials
    • Seizure First Aid and Safety
      • First Aid for Seizures - Stay, Safe, Side
      • Videos to Learn Seizure First Aid
      • First Aid Resources
      • Adapting First Aid Plans
        • First Aid for Focal Aware (simple partial) Seizures
        • First Aid for Focal Impaired Awareness (complex partial) Seizures
        • First Aid for Absence Seizures
        • First Aid for Atonic and Tonic Seizures
        • First Aid for Tonic-Clonic Seizures
        • Seizures in Water
        • Seizures in Airplanes
        • What Else Can I Do to Help?
      • Responding to Seizures
        • Using Rescue Medications
        • Using VNS Magnet
      • Getting Emergency Help
      • Help After a Seizure
      • Staying Safe
        • Recognizing Risks
        • Types of Injuries
        • Safety at Home
        • Safety While Sleeping
        • Safety in the Kitchen
        • Safety at Work
        • Safety with Exercise and Sports
        • Safety at Camp
        • Infographic
        • Preparing for Severe Weather and Other Emergencies and the Aftermath
        • Fall Safely
      • Seizure Dogs
        • Seizure Dogs: Q&A
        • Seizure Dogs: Children and Parent Partners
        • Personal Experience with a Seizure Dog: A conversation with Allison and Carol
        • Personal Story of a Seizure Dog: Spencer and Lucia
        • Perspective: Training Seizure Dogs
        • General Rights of Individuals with Service Animals
    • Managing Your Epilepsy
      • Managing My Seizures 101
        • Epilepsy Self Management
        • My Health Care Team
        • Working With Your Epilepsy Team
        • Staying in Touch with Your Health Care Team
        • Assessing My Readiness, Risks And Needs
        • Setting Priorities And Taking Actions
      • Managing Your Child’s Epilepsy
      • My Seizures Know More
      • #DareTo Go the Distance
        • A Seizure is Suspected: Getting Diagnosed
        • A Seizure is Suspected: Your Role
        • Creating My Health Care Team
        • At the Beginning of Your Treatment Journey
        • When Seizures Persist or Side Effects are a Problem
        • Managing Your Epilepsy
        • Finding Help and Support on Your Journey
      • Quality Care in Epilepsy
      • How Do I Know I Am Getting the Best Care
        • First Diagnosed
        • If Seizures Do Not Stop and Medication Side Effects
        • Women of Child‐bearing Age
        • Questions to Ask Your Doctor
        • Managing Continued Seizures
        • The Comprehensive Epilepsy Center
      • Understanding Seizures and Emergencies
        • What Is A Seizure Emergency
        • Importance of Preventing Seizures and Other Problems
        • Warning Signs of Seizures
      • Tracking My Seizures
        • Using Seizure Diaries
        • Importance of Tracking Seizures
        • Observing Seizures
      • Managing Triggers
        • How to Identify Seizure Triggers
        • Medication Adherence
        • ABCs for Managing Seizure Triggers
        • Tips for Lifestyle Modification
          • Noises
          • Bright, Flashing, or Flourescent Lights
          • Sleep
          • Exercise and Epilepsy: What Should I do?
          • Exercise and Hyperventilation
          • Diet
          • Hormonal Changes
          • Illness, Fever, Trauma
          • Stress, Anxiety, Depression
      • Seizure Drills
      • Using Rescue Treatments
        • Diastat 101
          • How do you know if the proper dose of Diastat has been set?
          • How is Diastat given?
          • How long does it take for Diastat to work?
          • What are common side effects of Diastat?
          • Is any special monitoring needed when Diastat is given?
        • Oral Rescue Medicines 101
          • What are lorazepam and diazepam used for?
          • How is lorazepam or diazepam given?
          • How long does it take to work?
          • What are some common side effects?
          • Is special monitoring needed?
        • VNS Therapy 101
          • Building VNS Therapy into Seizure First Aid
          • Using the VNS Magnet to Stop Seizures
          • Using the VNS Magnet to Turn Off Stimulation
          • Safety Tips for VNS Magnet Use
      • Seizure Response Plans
      • Adapting Plans for Travel
        • Making Travel Plans
        • Types of Travel and Vacations
        • Preparing for the Possibility of Seizures
        • Managing Medications while Traveling
        • Travel Tips for VNS and Other Treatments
        • Using Preparedness Plans and Other Resources
        • Teaching Others
      • Summer Camp
        • Choosing a Summer Camp
        • Understanding Types of Camps
        • Evaluating Camps
        • Preparing Staff for Seizure Management
        • Using Seizure Response Plans
        • Participating in Camp Activities
        • Tips to Enhance Camp Participation
        • Staying Safe at Camp
        • Water Safety
        • Summary
      • What is the Managing Epilepsy Well Network?
        • PEARLS
        • Texting 4 Control
        • UPLIFT
        • FOCUS
      • Emotional Response
      • Knowing Seizures And Emergencies
    • Seizure and Epilepsy News
      • Epilepsy & Behavior Journal
        • Select Journal Abstracts
          • 4th Biennial Epilepsy Pipeline Update Conference Recap
          • A Standardized Diagnostic Approach and Ongoing Feedback Improves Outcome in Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures
          • An Evaluation of the Impact of Memory and Mood on Antiepileptic Drug Adherence
          • Changes in Attitudes of US Adults toward People with Epilepsy
          • Changing the Approach to Treatment Choice in Epilepsy Using Big Data
          • Clinical and Economic Burden of Breakthrough Seizures
          • Cognitive Impairment in Older Adults with Epilepsy: Characterization and Risk Factor Analysis
          • Determinants of Felt Stigma in Epilepsy
          • Differential Impact of Contraceptive Methods on Seizures Varies by Antiepileptic Drug Category
          • Establishing an Adult Epilepsy Diet Center: Experience, Efficacy, and Challenges
          • Health Care Costs and Use Related to Long or Short Acting Seizure Medications (AEDs) when Used Alone
          • In Focus: The Everyday Lives of Families of Adult Individuals with Epilepsy
          • Long-term Seizure and Psychosocial Outcomes of Vagus Nerve Stimulation for Intractable Epilepsy
          • Perspectives on Seizure Clusters: Gaps in Lexicon, Awareness, and Treatment
          • Predicting Drug Resistance in Adult Patients with Generalized Epilepsy: A Case Control Study
          • Self-control of Epileptic Seizures by Nonpharmacological Strategies
          • Severity of Self-reported Insomnia in Adults with Epilepsy is Related to Comorbid Medical Disorders and Depressive Symptoms
          • Should we stop saying “epileptic”? A Comparison of the Effect of the Terms “Epileptic” and “Person with Epilepsy”
          • Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in School-aged Children with Active Epilepsy
          • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy is a Predisposing Factor for Sleep Apnea: A Questionnaire Study in Video-EEG Monitoring Unit
          • Use of Antiepileptic Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Type of information provided by searching Google
          • Vulnerabilities to Antiepileptic Drug (AED) Side Effects in Youth with Epilepsy
          • Visual Field Defects Following Different Resective Procedures for Mesiotemporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Utility of Long-term Video-EEG Monitoring for Children with Staring
          • Usage of EpiFinder Clinical Decision Support in the Assessment of Epilepsy
          • Understanding the Self-management Skills of Persons with Epilepsy
          • The Role of Executive Functioning in Quality of Life in Pediatric Intractable Epilepsy
          • The Impact of Stereotactic Laser Ablation at a Typical Epilepsy Center
          • The Efficacy of an Educational Program for Parents of Children with Epilepsy (FAMOSES)
          • The Co-Occurrence of Epilepsy and Autism: A Systematic Review
          • Social Media in Epilepsy: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
          • Seizure-related Variables are Predictive of Attention and Memory in Children with Epilepsy
          • Recurrent Catamenial Status Epilepticus: Is it Rare or an Under Recognized Phenomenon in Women with Epilepsy?
          • Psychiatric and Behavioral Side Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs in Adults with Epilepsy
          • Proceedings of the Epilepsy Foundation's 2017 Cannabinoids in Epilepsy Therapy Workshop
          • Presurgical Depression and Anxiety Are Not Associated with Worse Epilepsy Surgery Outcome Five Years Postoperatively
          • Parental Stress, Pediatric Quality of Life, and Behavior at Baseline and One-year Follow-up: Results from the FEBSTAT Study
          • Neurobehavioral Problems in Children with Early-onset Epilepsy: A Population-based Study
          • Most Antidepressant Drugs Are Safe for Patients with Epilepsy at Therapeutic Doses: A Review of the Evidence
          • Mortality in Dravet syndrome: A review
          • MINDSET: Clinical Feasibility of Utilizing the Revised Epilepsy Self-management Tool for Spanish Speaking Patients
          • Improved Quality of Life and Cognition After Early Vagal Nerve Stimulator Implantation in Children
          • Immediate outcomes in early life epilepsy: A contemporary account
          • Ictal Bradyarrhythmias and Asystole Requiring Pacemaker Implantation
          • How often is antiseizure drug-free ketogenic diet therapy achieved?
          • How do you exercise with epilepsy? Insights into the Barriers and Adaptations to Successfully Exercise with Epilepsy
          • Health Survey Data on Serious Psychological Distress Among Adults with Epilepsy in All Racial/Ethnic Groups
          • Folic Acid Use by Women with Epilepsy: Findings of the Epilepsy Birth Control Registry
          • Experiences and Needs of Parents of Young Children with Active Epilepsy: A Population-Based Study
          • Epilepsy by the Numbers: Epilepsy Deaths by Age, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender in the United States Significantly Increased from 2005 to 2014
          • Epilepsy Surgery in the Underserved Hispanic Population Improves Depression, Anxiety and Quality of Life
          • Epidemiology of Neurocysticercosis and Epilepsy, is Everything Described?
          • Diagnostic Accuracy of Audio-based Seizure Detection in Patients with Severe Epilepsy and an Intellectual Disability
          • Development and Use of the Art Therapy Seizure Assessment Sculpture on an Inpatient Epilepsy Monitoring Unit
          • Counseling by Epileptologists Affects Contraceptive Choices of Women with Epilepsy
          • Community-based Rehabilitation Offers Cost-effective Epilepsy Treatment in Rural Guinea-Bissau
          • Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Drug-resistant Epilepsy can Benefit from Epilepsy Surgery
          • Bursts of High-frequency Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS), Together with Lorazepam, Suppress Seizures in a Rat Kainate Status Epilepticus Model
          • Becoming Comfortable with "My" Epilepsy: Strategies that Patients Use in the Journey from Diagnosis to Acceptance and Disclosure
          • Association of Sleep with Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy
          • Association between antiepileptic drug dose and long-term response in patients with refractory epilepsy
          • Addressing Barriers to Surgical Evaluation for Patients with Epilepsy
          • Addition of a Hospital Bedside Sitter During Intracranial Stereotactic EEG Monitoring Improves Safety and Seizure Responses in Adult Epilepsy Monitoring Unit
          • A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Manual-based Psychosocial Group Intervention for Young People with Epilepsy (PIE)
        • Epilepsy Foundation Editorials
          • Epilepsy Foundation Efforts to Reduce the Impact of Epilepsy-Related Comorbidities: We Can’t Wait
          • The Epilepsy Pipeline Conference: Accelerating Hope
          • The New Partnership Between Epilepsy & Behavior and the Epilepsy Foundation
          • Advancing Public Policy for Epilepsy: The Epilepsy Foundation’s Public Police Institute and Teens Speak Up! Programs
          • The Epilepsy Foundation Leads in the Rare Epilepsy Network PCORI Award
          • Epilepsy Matters!
          • Epilepsy Foundation “#DareTo” Campaign
          • Epilepsy Foundation Public Awareness Campaigns – 2001 through 2013
          • National Walk for Epilepsy
          • Epilepsy Matters: Response to the CDC Report on Death in Children with Epilepsy
          • Saluting our Leaders
          • The Epilepsy Foundation is the Voice of People with Epilepsy and Their Families
          • Stronger Together: The Epilepsy Therapy Project and Epilepsy Foundation decide to merge - Our personal stories and reflections
          • People with Epilepsy as Partners in Research
      • Keto News
        • GLUT1 Deficiency Syndrome and the Ketogenic Diet
        • What to Do When Your Child Grows Up and Still Needs the Diet?
        • Continuing to Combat the Fear of High Cholesterol
        • Fasting and Absence Epilepsy: Reassessing Both in 2013
        • 3rd International Ketogenic Diet Symposium Recap
        • The Road to the Ketogenic Diet
        • Welcome to Chicago! The 3rd International Ketogenic Diet Conference
        • High Fat and Curry? A Trip to Witness the Indianization of the Ketogenic Diet
        • Top 10 Ketogenic Diet-Related Articles from 2011
        • Dietary Treatments and Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
        • What to Do When it’s Time to Stop?
        • Summer Reading on the Ketogenic Diet 2011
        • EEGs and the Ketogenic Diet
        • Diets and Adults: an Update for 2011
        • Top 10 Dietary Treatment Articles of 2010
        • Will My Child Get a Heart Attack?!? No! Long-term Use of the Diet is Safe!
        • New York Times Magazine Cover Story on Ketogenic Diet Therapy for Epilepsy
        • Excitement in Edinburgh: Report from the 2nd International Dietary Therapies Meeting
        • October in Edinburgh! Ketogenic Diets 2nd Biannual Conference
        • Infantile Spasms and the Diet: The Evidence Grows
        • The Ketogenic Diet Up North
        • American Epilepsy Society Annual Meeting Recap
        • Top 10 Articles of 2009
        • 911: Using Ketogenic Diets for Emergencies
        • Can You "Fine-Tune" the Ketogenic Diet?
        • Side Effects on the Diet: Prevention, Not Just Treatment
        • The Ketogenic Diet in a Bottle?
        • Diet Therapy for Epilepsy in the Mideast
        • Why is this Night Different from All Other Nights? Mixing Ketogenic Diets and Passover
        • Is There a Right Way to Do the Diet? The Consensus Statement is Published!
        • Does Ketosis Matter? Discussion at the 2008 American Epilepsy Society
        • Top 10 Ketogenic Diet Articles for 2008
        • A Remembrance of Life on the Ketogenic Diet 60 Years Later!
        • Using the Diet for Epilepsy First?
        • Siblings and the Ketogenic Diet
        • Grace’s Magic Diet: A Child’s Story
        • Ketogenic Diets: Not Just for Epilepsy any Longer
        • Ketogenic Diet Centers in the United States
        • Newly-released Results from a Randomized and Controlled Study of the Ketogenic Diet in London
        • The First International Dietary Treatments for Epilepsy and other Neurologic Disorders Meeting Report
        • The Ketogenic Diet and Antiepileptic Drugs: A Good Mix?
        • Ketogenic Recipes for Easter and Passover
        • Let’s Meet! Exciting Past (and Future) Ketogenic Diet Conferences
        • Hearts, Flowers, and Almond Bread
        • Top 10 Ketogenic Diet Articles in the Medical Literature of 2007
        • Winter Holidays
        • Side Effects on the Ketogenic Diet: Identification and Treatment
        • A Happy Ketogenic Thanksgiving
        • Laboratory Notes on the Ketogenic Diet
        • Try It: They Might Like It!
        • The MCT Diet
        • A Mother's Plan for the Ketogenic Diet
        • Preparing Yourself, Your Family, and Your Child for the Ketogenic Diet
        • The Low Glycemic Index Treatment and the Ketogenic Diet
        • Modified Atkins Diet – More on the Plate than Ever
        • Do Ketogenic Diets Work for Adults with Epilepsy? Yes!
        • Ketogenic Diet Research
      • Basic Science of Epilepsy
      • PubMed Articles Feeds
      • Local Office Spotlight Archive
    • Early Death and SUDEP
      • SUDEP
        • SUDEP FAQ
        • What does the 2017 SUDEP Guideline mean for me?
        • How SUDEP Occurs
        • Preventing SUDEP
        • SUDEP Resources
        • SUDEP Webinars and Presentations
        • The Role of Seizure Alerts
          • Brain Sentinel® Monitoring and Alerting (SPEAC) System
        • SUDEP News
        • SUDEP Research Efforts
        • Support for Bereaved
        • Bereavement Support Articles
        • SUDEP Action Day
        • Talking About SUDEP
        • #DareTo Say SUDEP
        • #DareTo Say SUDEP Infographic
        • SUDEP Stories
          • One Family Dares Doctors to Talk About SUDEP
          • A Plea from a Family: Talk about SUDEP
          • Mom to Young Adults: #DareTo Ask for Help in Managing Seizures
          • #DareTo Say SUDEP: A Daughter’s Perspective
          • Understanding My Risk for SUDEP
          • Omissions Can Be Deadly
          • Mom and Nurse: #DareTo Advocate for Adults Living with Epilepsy
          • Jane’s Journey for SUDEP Action
          • Dare to Say NORSE
          • Dare to Attend PAME 2016
          • #DareTo Say SUDEP and Make Informed Choices
          • #DareTo Initiate the SUDEP Conversation – It May Save a Life
          • #DareTo Contact the Epilepsy Foundation and the North American SUDEP Registry
      • Suicide
    • Find a Clinical Trial
    • Refractory Epilepsy (Difficult to Treat Seizures)
      • The Comprehensive Epilepsy Center
      • Treating Refractory Epilepsy
    • Challenges with Epilepsy
      • Seizure Emergencies
        • Seizure Clusters
        • Status Epilepticus
      • Injuries and Illnesses
      • Thinking and Memory
        • Thinking Memory and Epilepsy
        • Diagnosing and Treating Memory Problems
        • Memory And Seizures
        • Types Of Memory Problems
        • Causes of Memory Problems
        • Top Ten Memory Complaints
        • Memory Techniques
      • Moods and Behavior
        • Medications And Mood
        • Mood and Behavior 101
          • Effects on Behavior
          • Moods and Behavior
          • Stress, Mood, and Seizures
          • Mood and Personality Changes
          • Anxiety
          • Aggression
          • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
          • Psychosis
          • Epilepsy and ADHD
        • Mood and Behavior Advanced
          • Interictal Problems
          • Psychosis
          • Anxiety Disorders
          • Impaired Attention
          • Depression
          • Diagnosis
          • Therapy Options
          • Conclusion
        • Cognitive Therapies
      • Sleep and Epilepsy
        • What is Sleep?
        • How Does Sleep Affect the EEG?
        • Sleep And Age
        • Drowsiness And Memory
        • Sleep Disruption
        • Sleep Disorders
        • Getting A Good Night's Sleep
        • Sleep And AEDS
      • Bone Health
      • Social Concerns
      • Risks During Pregnancy
    • Special Populations
      • African Americans
        • African American Outreach
        • Furthering Campus-Community Partnerships for Epilepsy Education
      • Asian Americans
      • La Epilepsia
        • ¿Qué es epilepsia?
          • Información sobre la epilepsia
          • El diagnostico de la epilepsia
          • Tratando la epilepsia
          • Tipos de Convulsiones/ataques
          • Primeros auxilios para convulsiones o ataques
          • Encuentre un médico
          • El cerebro
          • La Genética y la Epilepsia
        • Cómo vivir con Epilepsia
          • Cómo mantenerse saludable
          • Mujeres, embarazo y niños
          • Ancianos
          • Infancia
        • Recursos
          • Cómo ayudar a los seres queridos
          • Para profesionales
          • Preguntas más frecuentes y sus respuestas
          • Alianzas Estratégicas
          • Historias que nos inspiran
          • Obtenga la información más reciente
            • Estatus epiléptico: Reto para el médico de sala de emergencia
            • Epilepsia, la enfermedad olvidada en América Latina
            • Un estudio respalda el vínculo entre el estrés y los ataques epilépticos
          • Materiales educativos
        • Conexiones Locales
      • En Espanol
        • Cómo Manejar La Epilepsia Y Las Crisis Epilépticas
      • Men and Epilepsy
      • Seniors and Epilepsy
        • Seniors With Epilepsy
        • Types of Seizures
        • Seizure Recognition And First Aid
        • Causes Of Epilepsy
        • Getting A Diagnosis
        • Effects Of Epilepsy Medications
        • Side Effects
        • Falls During Seizures
        • Treating Epilepsy In Seniors
        • Effects Of Epilepsy On Seniors
        • Living Independently
        • Safety Issues
        • Caregivers
      • For Veterans
        • For Healthcare Professionals
        • For Family Members
        • Veterans Program
    • Learning Network
    • Professionals
      • Seizures in Adults (Connectors Project)
      • AAN/AES SUDEP Guideline for Professionals
      • Videos About Epilepsy and Cannabis
      • Seizure Dogs: What Providers Need to Know
      • Hallway Conversations
      • GW Grand Rounds Series
      • Epilepsy Innovation Institute
      • Epilepsy Foundation Pipeline Conferences
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session I & II
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session III
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session IV
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session V, VI and Lifetime Accelerator Award
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session VII
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session VIII
        • Epilepsy Pipeline 2014 - Session IX, Shark Tank Competition and Closing Remarks
      • Joint Content Partnership with AES
        • Epilepsy Comorbidities
        • How Device Trials Work
        • Patient Safety in the Epilepsy Monitoring Unit
        • PAME Conference Wrapup Podcast
        • Podcast on Epilepsy Surgery
        • SUDEP FAQ for Professionals
        • The Complex Relationship Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Epilepsy
        • Seizure Emergencies
        • Podcast on Electrophysiological Biomarkers
        • Obstacles in Epilepsy Diagnosis: If You Don't Ask, They Won't Tell
        • New-Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus (NORSE)
        • New Treatment Strategies For Neurodevelopmental Epilepsies
        • New Status Epilepticus Guidelines
        • My Seizures, Know More
        • Generic Antiepileptic Drugs - Results of FDA Research
        • First Seizure Guidelines
        • Epilepsy Quality Measures
        • Cannabinoids in Medically Refractory Epilepsy
        • Biomarkers in Epilepsy: The Latest Research
      • Educational Webcasts & Web Links
        • AED Mechanisms of Actions Roundtable
        • Adverse Effects Related to Medication Roundtable
        • An Algorithm on the Diagnosis of Nonlesional Epilepsy
        • An Algorithm on the Treatment of Epilepsy in Patients with a Normal MRI
        • Treatment for Patients with Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome Roundtable
      • About Epilepsy & Seizures
        • EpiNet Seizure Classification Teaching Module
        • Overview of Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Convulsions
          • Benign Rolandic
          • CEOP
          • Childhood Absence (Pyknolepsy)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
          • Grand Mal Seizures on Awakening
          • Infant Benign Myoclonic
          • Infant Severe Myoclonic
          • Infantile Spasms
          • Juvenile Absence
          • Juvenile Myoclonic
          • Landau-Kleffner Syndrome
          • Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
          • Myoclonic Absences
          • Myoclonic-Astatic Seizures
          • Ring Chromosome 20 Syndrome
            • Ring Chromosome 20 Symptom List
          • Slow Sleep Spikes and Waves
          • Unverricht-Lundborg Disease
          • References
        • Classifying Seizures
          • Distinguishing Factors
          • Generalized Seizures
            • Absence
            • Atonic
            • Clonic
            • Myoclonic
            • Tonic
            • Tonic-clonic
          • Nonepileptic Seizures
            • Causes
            • Diagnosis
              • Clues from the History
              • Clues from the Event
              • Video-EEG Monitoring
            • Talking to the Patient
            • Treatment and Outlook
            • Readings
          • References
          • Status Epilepticus
            • Convulsive SE
              • Complications and Prognosis
              • Symptoms and Causes
            • Less Obvious SE
            • Diagnosing SE
            • Managing Status Epilepticus
              • Phenytoin and Fosphenytoin
              • Valproic Acid
              • Phenobarbital
              • Diazepam
              • Lorazepam
              • Midazolam and Clonazepam
              • Continuous Anesthesia for Refractory SE
              • Medical Treatment of Other Forms of SE
              • Troubleshooting
            • Readings
        • Neonatal Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes
          • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
          • Benign Neonatal Seizures (Non-Familial)
          • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
          • Ohtahara Syndrome
        • Idiopathic Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes in Infancy
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Benign Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy
          • Benign Familial and Non-Familial Infantile Seizures (Watanabe-Vigevano Syndrome)
          • Generalized Epilepsies with Febrile Seizures Plus (GEFS ; Autosomal Dominant Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus)
        • Epileptic Encephalopathies in Infancy and Childhood
          • Myoclonic Status in Non-Progressive Encephalopathies
          • Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
          • Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (Acquired Epileptic Aphasia)
          • Hypothalamic (Gelastic) Epilepsy
          • Epilepsy with Continuous Spikes and Waves During Slow-Wave Sleep (Electrical Status Epilepticus During Slow-Wave Sleep)
          • Dravet Syndrome (Severe Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy)
          • West Syndrome (Infantile Spasms)
        • Severe Neocortical Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy and Childhood
          • Kozhevnikov-Rasmussen Syndrome
          • Hemiconvulsion-Hemiplegia Epilepsy Syndrome
          • Epilepsia Partialis Continua of Kozhevnikov
          • Migrating Focal Seizures of Infancy
        • Benign Childhood Focal Seizures
          • Gastaut-Type Idiopathic Childhood Occipital Epilepsy
          • Benign Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (Rolandic Seizures)
          • Panayiotopoulos Syndrome
        • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies
          • Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME; Janz Syndrome)
          • Juvenile Absence Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Phantom Absences
          • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures Only
          • Epilepsy with Myoclonic-Astatic Seizures (Doose Syndrome)
          • Epilepsy with Myoclonic Absences
          • Childhood Absence Epilepsy
          • Perioral Myoclonia with Absences
        • Familial (Autosomal Dominant) Focal Epilepsies
          • Familial Focal Epilepsy with Variable Foci
          • Familial Autosomal Dominant Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (Autosomal Dominant Focal Epilepsy with Auditory Features)
          • Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE)
          • Familial Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Symptomatic and Probably Symptomatic Focal Epilepsies
          • Parietal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Occipital Lobe Epilepsies
          • Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with Hippocampal Sclerosis
          • Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Frontal Lobe Epilepsies
          • Common Frontal Lobe Seizures Depending on Localization
          • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE)
        • Reflex Seizures and Related Epileptic Syndromes
          • Television Epilepsy
          • Startle Epilepsy (Startle-Induced Seizures)
          • Self-Induced Seizures
          • Photosensitive Epilepsy
          • Jeavons Syndrome (Eyelid Myoclonia with Absences)
          • Idiopathic Reading Epilepsy
          • Idiopathic Photosensitive Occipital Lobe Epilepsy
          • Video Game-Induced Seizures (VGS)
        • Hormones and Epilepsy
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
            • Patterns and Causes
            • Evaluation
            • Treatment
          • Effects on Other Hormones
          • Female Reproductive Endocrine Function
            • Evaluating Reproductive Dysfunction
          • Female Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Male Reproductive Endocrine Function
          • Male Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
          • Menarche
          • Menopause and Perimenopause
          • Other Hormonal Systems and AEDs
          • Postictal Prolactin Testing
          • Reproductive issues
            • Contraception
            • Fertility
            • Obstetrical Risks
            • Seizures During Pregnancy
            • AED Management During Pregnancy
            • Teratogenicity
            • Monitoring Pregnancy in Women with Epilepsy
            • Breastfeeding
          • References
        • Psychiatric and Behavioral Aspects
          • Effects of Treatment
          • Evaluating Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Influence of Seizure Types
          • Interictal Behaviors of TLE
          • Psychiatric Predispositions
          • Psychiatric Symptoms
            • Depression
            • Psychosis
            • Forced Normalization
            • Aggression
            • Other Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Treatment of Psychiatric Complications
          • Readings
      • Co-Existing Disorders
        • Brain Tumors
          • Pathophysiology
          • Clues to anatomic location
          • Neuroimaging
          • Astrocytoma
          • Oligodendroglioma
          • Ganglioglioma
          • DNETs
          • Meningioma
          • Metastatic
          • Treatment
          • Prophylaxis
          • AED Treatment
          • Surgical Planning and Prep
          • Postoperative Complications
          • Future Trends
          • References
        • Cardiac Disorders
          • References
          • Myocardial Infarction
          • Managing Epilepsy
          • Managing Cardiac Disease
          • Congenital Heart Disease
          • Complications
          • Assessment: Neurologic or Cardiac?
          • Arrhythmias
          • Valve Disease
        • Cerebrovascular Disease
          • Ischemic Etiologies
          • Hemorrhagic Etiologies
          • Other Etiologies
          • Epidemiology of Stroke
          • Incidence and Risk Factors for Seizures
          • Types of Seizures
          • Assessment of Seizures
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Treatment of Seizures
            • Phenytoin
            • Phenobarbital
            • Carbamazepine
            • Valproate
            • Other AEDs
            • Special Situations
          • Prognosis
          • References
        • Developmental Disorders
          • Mental Retardation and Cerebral Palsy
            • References
            • Prognosis
            • Epidemiology of MR
            • Epidemiology of CP
            • Characteristics of Seizures
            • Risk Among Children
              • Children with MR
              • Children with CP
              • Children with MR and CP
          • Childhood-specific epilepsies with DD
            • Mechanisms of seizure-induced brain damage
              • Recurrent Seizures: Damage to the Developing Brain
              • Status Epilepticus : Damage to the Developing Brain
            • Developmental Delay and Infantile Spasms
            • Characteristics of Infantile Spasms
            • References
          • Metabolic and Genetic Disorders
            • Family History
            • Physical Examination
            • Neurologic Examination
            • Age of Onset
              • Age of Onset - table
            • Seizure Frequency and Types
            • Diagnostic Testing
              • Diagnostic Testing - table
            • Identifying the Locus
              • Identifying the Locus - table
            • Treatment
            • References
        • Gastrointestinal & Liver Disease
          • Gastrointestinal disease
          • Liver Disease
          • Effects on specific AEDs
            • Valproic acid
            • Topiramate
            • Tiagabine
            • Phenytoin
            • Phenobarbital
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Lamotrigine
            • Gabapentin
            • Felbamate
            • Ethosuximide
            • Carbamazepine
            • Zonisamide
          • References
          • Choosing and monitoring AEDs
        • Head Trauma & Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
          • References
          • Prevention and Prophylaxis
          • Mechanisms of Brain Injury
            • Cellular Mechanisms of Epileptogenesis
            • Can Responses be Altered?
            • Biochemical Effects
            • Genetic and Molecular Factors
          • Management Guidelines
          • Risks
        • Hematologic Disorders
          • Sickle Cell Disease
          • References
          • Proliferative Disorders
          • Newborn Hemorrhagic Disease
          • Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
          • Folate Deficiency
          • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
          • Bone Marrow Transplantation
          • Aplastic Anemia
          • Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy
          • Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
        • Infectious States & Seizures
          • Trypanosomiasis
          • Toxoplasmosis
          • Syphilis
          • Subdural Empyema
          • Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
          • Slow Virus Infections
          • Seizure Complications of Antibacterial Treatment
          • References
          • Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
          • Noninfectious Causes of Meningitis
          • Mycoplasmal Infections
          • Mycobacterial Infections
            • CNS Tuberculoma
            • Tuberculous Meningitis
          • Malaria
          • Lyme Disease
            • Late Disseminated Infection
            • Early Localized Infection
            • Early Disseminated Infection
            • Diagnosis
            • Treatment
          • Intraparenchymal Abscess
          • Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients
          • Helminthic parasitic Infections
            • Toxocariasis
            • Strongyloidiasis
            • Schistosomiasis
            • Neurocysticercosis
            • Echinococcosis
            • Angiostrongyliasis
            • Trichinosis
          • Fungal Infections
          • Febrile Seizures
          • Epilepsy as a Consequence of Infection
          • Epilepsy & TB treatment
          • Epidural Abscess
          • Bacterial Meningitis
            • Seizure Complications
            • Epidemiology
            • Diagnosis
            • Treatment
          • Amebic Parasitic Infections
          • Viral Infections
            • Rabies
            • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
            • Herpes Encephalitis
            • HHV-6 encephalitis
            • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
            • Enteroviruses
            • Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
            • Arboviruses
            • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications - table
        • Inflammatory Disorders
          • Crohn's Disease
        • Metabolic Disorders
          • Inborn Errors
            • Niemann-Pick Disease
            • Mucopolysaccharidoses
            • Hepatic Porphyria
            • Gaucher's Disease
            • Phenylketonuria
          • Hypoparathyroidism
          • Hyperthyroidism
          • Electrolyte Abnormalities
            • Hyponatremia
            • Hypomagnesemia
            • Hypoglycemia
            • Hypocalcemia
            • Hypernatremia
            • Nonketotic Hyperglycemia
          • Adrenal Insufficiency
          • References
        • Migraine & Epilepsy
          • Treatment Considerations
          • The EEG
          • References
          • Phases
          • Migraine-Epilepsy Syndromes
          • Migraine & Epilepsy - table
          • Headache as a Consequence of Seizures
          • Epidemiologic Connections
          • Clinical Features
          • Classification
          • Variants Confused with Epilepsy
        • Renal Disorders
          • References
          • Physiology of Drug Clearance
          • Effects on Steady-State Plasma Concentration
          • Effects on Specific AEDs
            • Valproate
            • Topiramate
            • Tiagabine
            • Primidone
            • Phenytoin
            • Phenobarbital
            • Oxcarbazepine
            • Levetiracetam
            • Lamotrigine
            • Gabapentin
            • Fosphenytoin
            • Felbamate
            • Ethosuximide
            • Clonazepam
            • Carbamazepine
            • Zonisamide
          • Effects of Hemodialysis
          • Drug Dosing Rate Adjustments
          • Dialysis Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Dialysis Disequilibrium Syndrome
          • Correction for Hemodialysis
          • Aluminum Encephalopathy Syndrome
          • Uremic Encephalopathy
        • Sleep Disorders
          • References
          • Periodic Limb Movements and Restless Legs Syndrome
          • Narcolepsy
          • Insomnia
          • Idiopathic CNS Hypersomnia
          • Fundamentals
          • Effects of Seizures on Sleep
          • Effects of IEDs on Sleep
          • Effects of AEDs on Sleep
          • Differential Diagnosis
          • Classification
          • Approach to Insomnia
          • Approach to Daytime Sleepiness
          • Sleep Apnea
        • Transplantation & Seizures
          • Pancreas
          • Lung
          • Liver
          • Kidney
          • Heart
          • Diagnostic Approach
          • Chronic Management
          • Bone Marrow
          • Acute Management
          • References
        • Pulmonary Disorders
          • Sleep Apnea Syndrome
          • Respiratory Insufficiency
          • Respiratory Effects of AEDs
          • References
          • Generalized Seizures or SE
          • Focal Cortical or Limbic-Onset Seizures
          • Theophylline Toxicity
      • Specialized Populations
        • Seniors
          • Common Causes
          • Strokes
          • Seizure Presentation
          • Causes of Episodic Neurologic Dysfunction
          • Evaluation of First Seizure
          • First Seizure Treatment
          • Choosing AEDs for Seniors
          • Pharmacokinetics
          • Prognosis and Quality of Life
          • Long-term Management
          • Surgery
          • Status Epilepticus
          • References
        • Men
          • Effects of AEDs
          • Reproductive Endocrine Disorders
          • Male Infertility
          • Male Contraception
          • Effects of AEDs on Male Maturation
          • Effects on Sexual Function
          • A Commentary: The Effects of AEDS on Male Hormones
          • References
        • Women
          • Physician's Discussion Checklist for Women with Epilepsy
          • Discussion Guide
          • New Evidence for Heightened Obstetrical Risk in Women with Epilepsy
      • Diagnosis & Treatment
        • The Epilepsy Clinic–Test Your Clinical Knowledge
          • iEEG and discordant scEEG
          • Wickets and Surgical Delay
          • Why Delay?
          • When Do You Consider Epilepsy Drug Resistant?
          • What is the Importance of Classification?
          • What are the Pitfalls in the Diagnosis of Epilepsy in the Elderly?
          • Wada Testing and Functional MRI
          • The Interictal-Ictal Continuum
          • Spells and Cerebrovascular Disease
          • Spells and Abnormal EEG
          • SISCOM
          • Rett Syndrome
          • Rasmussen Encephalitis and Hemispherectomy
          • Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy
          • Post TLE AED Withdrawl
          • Panayiotopoulos Syndrome
          • Left ATL and Memory Outcome
          • Lambda Waves
          • LGS and Pseudoseizure
          • Jeavon's Syndrome
          • Ictal Asystole
          • IED Frequency and Seizure Severity
          • How Can EEG Help After a Seizure?
          • Generic Drugs and Epilepsy
          • Epilepsy and Alzheimer’s Dementia
          • Dementia and EEG
          • DT Tractography
          • Artifact Read as GSW in Vertigo
          • AED Withdrawl and CAAEEG
          • mTLE and Seizures after LATL
        • Epilepsy Care Quality Measures
          • Evaluation of a First Seizure
          • New Onset Epilepsy
          • Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Women of Childbearing Potential
          • Patient-Identified Quality Measures
        • Disgnostic Evaluation of Autoimmune Epilepsy
        • Clinical Trials
        • Drugs & Their Contribution to Seizures
          • Metabolic Encephalopathy
          • Surgery and Anesthesia
          • Antimicrobial Drugs and Immunosuppression
          • Differentiating Nonepileptic Behavior
          • Antidepressants
          • Antipsychotics
          • Anxiolytics and Hypnotics
          • Amphetamines
          • AEDs that can Cause Seizures
          • OTC and Herbal Medicines
          • Alcohol
          • Cocaine
          • Illicit Stimulants
          • Opioids and CNS Depressants
          • References
        • Emergency Department Care
          • Post-Seizure Visits
            • Abnormal Postictal Neurologic Exam
            • Abnormal Postictal Labs
            • Abnormal Neuroimaging
            • Changes in Duration, Frequency, or Type
          • Non-Seizure Visits
          • First or Unknown Seizure History Visits
          • Approach to Epilepsy
            • Treating Convulsive SE
          • Acutely Seizing Patients
            • Myoclonic Seizures
            • Absence Seizures
            • Nonepileptic Psychogenic Seizures
          • References
        • ICU Care
          • Emergently Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • Emergently Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • Electively Admitted: Treating Seizures
          • Electively Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
          • References
        • Ketogenic Diet
        • Non-Drug Therapies
        • Procedures in Epilepsy Patients
          • Premedication
          • Anesthesia
          • General Anesthetics
            • Other Inhalational Agents
            • Opioids
            • Ketamine
            • Etomidate
            • Enflurane
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Barbiturates
            • Propofol
          • Local Anesthesia
            • Lidocaine
            • Other Local Anesthetics
          • Anesthetic Adjuvants
          • Non-Opioid Analgesics
          • Preoperative Planning and Management
          • Dental Procedures
          • References
        • Psychotropic Drugs & Developmental Disabilities
          • Diagnostic Issues
          • Psychiatric Disorders
          • Comorbid Epilepsy Approach
            • Antidepressants
            • Antipsychotics
            • Buspirone
            • Beta-Blockers
            • Amphetamines
            • Mood Stabilizers
          • References
        • Psychotropic Effects on Developmental Disabilities
          • Adminstration of AEDs
          • Clinical Effects of AEDs
          • Specific AEDs
            • Valproic Acid
            • Topiramate
            • Tiagabine
            • Phenytoin
            • Lamotrigine
            • Gabapentin
            • Felbamate
            • Ethosuximide
            • Carbamazepine
            • Benzodiazepines
            • Barbiturates
            • Vigabatrin
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • References
        • Surgery
          • Readings
          • Radiosurgery for Epilepsy
          • Procedures
          • Presurgical Evaluation
            • Pre-surgery Intracranial Monitoring: Stereo-EEG Versus Subdural Electrodes
          • Neurostimulation for Epilepsy
          • Lobectomy Outlook
          • Implanted EEG Electrodes
          • Hemispherectomy
          • Corpus Callosotomy
          • Children with Medically Refractory Epilepsy
            • Case Illustrations
            • Rationale for Surgery
          • Who is a Candidate?
        • Therapeutic and Generic Substitutions
          • Medicaid AED Rules for Generic Substitutions by State
          • Article : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians and Patients
          • Powerpoint Presentation : Generic and Brand Name AEDs – Considerations for Clinicians
        • Treatment
          • Therapy Goals
          • 9 Steps of Treatment
            • 1) Diagnosis
            • 2) When to Start
            • 3) Choosing Medication
            • 4) Initiating Treatment
            • 5) Detecting Noncompliance
            • 6) Managing Side Effects
            • 7) Interaction Awareness
            • 8) Monitoring AED Levels
            • 9) Discontinuing Treatment
          • AEDs and Pregnancy
          • Managing Psychosocial Stress
          • References
        • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
          • SUDEP, VNS and the FDA
        • A Potential New Therapy for Neonatal Seizures
        • Basic Science of EEG
        • Magnetic–Resonance-Guided Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy (MR-g LITT)
        • Prospects for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Epilepsy
      • Refractory Seizures
        • Overview
          • Goals of Therapy
          • Importance of Seizure Freedom
          • Definition of Refractory Seizures
        • Epidemiology and Difficult-to-Treat Epilepsies
          • Epidemiology
          • Difficult to Treat or Progressive Epilepsy Syndromes
        • Potentially Remediable Causes
          • Wrong Diagnosis
          • Correct AED, but Inadequate Treatment
          • Noncompliance
          • Progressive Lesions
          • Seizure Clusters
          • Exacerbation by Medical Conditions
          • Catamenial Epilepsy
          • Exposure to Seizure Triggers
        • Actions to Take
          • Quality Care Indicators for Patients with Refractory Seizures
          • Identify and Reduce Triggers
          • Diagnostic Evaluation
          • AED Changes
          • Surgical Evaluation
          • Non-Pharmacological Therapies
          • Seizure Preparedness; Safety Plan
          • Clinical Trials
      • Challenging Cases
        • Vigabatrin Treatment In A Patient With Visual Field Defects: What To Do?
        • Left Arm and Leg Shaking in a Patient with a History of Treated Syphilis
        • The Value of Diagnostic Persistence
        • Syncope In A Patient With Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Seizure Relapse 13 Years After Successful Surgery
        • If At First You Don’t Succeed...
        • Attacks of Rising Sensations, Pallor and Loss of Consciousness
        • Epileptic Falls Due to the Heart
        • Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis
      • Continuing Medical Education
        • Improved Patient Safety in Epilepsy Monitoring Units
        • SUDEP Counseling: Risk Management for Clinicians
      • Resource Library
        • Newly Published Epilepsy Related Books
        • Announcements
          • Valproate (Depakote) Linked to Lower IQs in Babies
          • Upsher-Smith Laboratories Adds ITI-111 (Nasal Midazolam) to CNS Development Pipeline
          • UCB Announces First Results From Phase III Brivaracetam Studies in Epilepsy
          • Return of Yellow-Square Mysoline® (primidone, USP) 250 mg tablets
          • Researchers Identify New Drug to Prevent Seizure Progression in Model of Epilepsy
          • Purple Day - Epilepsy Awareness Day - is March 26, 2010
          • New CDC Funding Opportunities for Epilepsy Research in 2010
          • Neurotech Bill Introduced in Both Senate and House of Representatives
          • Info for All the Entrepreneurs Working in Epilepsy
          • FDA Comment Period on Rare Diseases
          • FDA Approves Generic Topamax to Prevent Seizures
          • Dr. Solomon L. Moshé Elected President of The International League Against Epilepsy
          • Department of Defense Peer Reviewed Medical Research Program FY10 Program Announcements Released
          • DBS Therapy for Epilepsy Received Approval for the Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy in Europe
          • CDC Releases Report on Effects of Swine Flu in Children
          • AAN & AES New Guidelines Focus on Women with Epilepsy and Pregnancy
          • Zebinix Approved in the European Union
        • Epilepsy Medical Journal Links
        • How a National Institutes of Health Study Section Works
        • Anticonvulsant Screening Program
        • Conference News
          • Polyunsaturated Fats for Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy: Disappointing Results
          • Pathways to Discovery in Epilepsy Research: Rethinking the Quest for Cures - Hoyer Lecture
          • How Parents Respond to Their Child's First Seizure
          • How Effective is the Atkins Diet in Treating Medically Refractory Seizures?
          • Are Those with Epilepsy Excessive Caffeine Drinkers?
          • Are Newer Antiepileptic Drugs Being Used in the Elderly?
          • An Alternative to Open Surgery for Patients with Unilateral Medically Refractory Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
          • 2012 Epilepsy Pipeline Update Conference Webcasts
          • 2009 Epilepsy Pipeline Update
          • 10th Antiepileptic Drug Trials Update: 2009
          • Some Patients with Epilepsy Drive Against Doctors’ Orders
        • Articles and Publications
          • New England Journal of Medicine Finds a High Mortality Rate From Childhood Onset Epilepsy
        • Quality-of-Life Tools
        • Epilepsy & Behavior Articles
          • Behavioral Aspects of Frontal Lobe Epilepsy
          • Comorbid Psychiatric Symptoms in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Association with Chronicity of Epilepsy and Iimpact on Quality of Life
          • Delivering the Diagnosis of Psychogenic Pseudoseizures: Should the Neurologist or the Psychiatrist be Responsible?
          • Herbal Medicines and Epilepsy: The Potential for Benefit and Adverse Effects
          • Mood Disorders are Linked to Health-related Quality of Life in Epilepsy
          • Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Epilepsy in Children
          • Presentation, Evaluation, and Treatment of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus
          • Psychosis of Epilepsy: A Neurologist's Perspective
          • The Etiology and Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus
          • The Frontal Lobes, Epilepsy, and Behavior
          • The Use of Sertraline in Patients with Epilepsy: Is it Safe?
          • Vagus Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy
          • When did Neurologists and Psychiatrists Stop Talking to Each Other?
        • Links
          • Recreational Therapy Organizations
          • Recreation and Leisure Activities
          • Professional Epilepsy Organizations
          • Prescription Drug Assistance Programs
          • Online and Mail-Order Pharmacies
          • Information on the Ketogenic Diet
          • Information in Other Languages
          • Informacíon en Español
          • General Health Websites
          • Epilepsy-Related Organizations
          • Epilepsy Websites
          • Epilepsy Journals
          • Devices and Equipment
          • Career and Rehabilitation
          • Brain Anatomy and Neurosciences
          • Books about Epilepsy
          • Services for Children and Their Families
        • Newsletter Archive
        • Articles and Videos
          • Extended Release Oxcarbazepine and Topiramate Approved
          • Epilepsy Must Become a Higher Government Priority
          • FDA Approves Eisai's AMPA Receptor Antagonist
          • AES Meeting in San Antonio - Highlights of the Latest Research Blog
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Learn / Professionals / Refractory Seizures / Overview

Overview

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  • Professionals
    • Refractory Seizures
      • Overview
        • Goals of Therapy
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    • About Epilepsy & Seizures
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          • Ring Chromosome 20 Symptom List
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        • References
      • Neonatal Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes
        • Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures
        • Benign Neonatal Seizures (Non-Familial)
        • Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy
        • Ohtahara Syndrome
      • Idiopathic Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes in Infancy
        • Benign Familial and Non-Familial Infantile Seizures (Watanabe-Vigevano Syndrome)
        • Benign Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy
        • Febrile Seizures
        • Generalized Epilepsies with Febrile Seizures Plus (GEFS ; Autosomal Dominant Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus)
      • Epileptic Encephalopathies in Infancy and Childhood
        • Dravet Syndrome (Severe Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy)
        • Epilepsy with Continuous Spikes and Waves During Slow-Wave Sleep (Electrical Status Epilepticus During Slow-Wave Sleep)
        • Hypothalamic (Gelastic) Epilepsy
        • Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (Acquired Epileptic Aphasia)
        • Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
        • Myoclonic Status in Non-Progressive Encephalopathies
        • West Syndrome (Infantile Spasms)
      • Severe Neocortical Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy and Childhood
        • Epilepsia Partialis Continua of Kozhevnikov
        • Hemiconvulsion-Hemiplegia Epilepsy Syndrome
        • Kozhevnikov-Rasmussen Syndrome
        • Migrating Focal Seizures of Infancy
      • Benign Childhood Focal Seizures
        • Benign Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (Rolandic Seizures)
        • Gastaut-Type Idiopathic Childhood Occipital Epilepsy
        • Panayiotopoulos Syndrome
      • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies
        • Childhood Absence Epilepsy
        • Epilepsy with Myoclonic Absences
        • Epilepsy with Myoclonic-Astatic Seizures (Doose Syndrome)
        • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures Only
        • Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Phantom Absences
        • Juvenile Absence Epilepsy
        • Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME; Janz Syndrome)
        • Perioral Myoclonia with Absences
      • Familial (Autosomal Dominant) Focal Epilepsies
        • Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE)
        • Familial Autosomal Dominant Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (Autosomal Dominant Focal Epilepsy with Auditory Features)
        • Familial Focal Epilepsy with Variable Foci
        • Familial Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
      • Symptomatic and Probably Symptomatic Focal Epilepsies
        • Common Frontal Lobe Seizures Depending on Localization
        • Frontal Lobe Epilepsies
        • Lateral Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
        • Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with Hippocampal Sclerosis
        • Occipital Lobe Epilepsies
        • Parietal Lobe Epilepsies
        • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE)
      • Reflex Seizures and Related Epileptic Syndromes
        • Idiopathic Photosensitive Occipital Lobe Epilepsy
        • Idiopathic Reading Epilepsy
        • Jeavons Syndrome (Eyelid Myoclonia with Absences)
        • Photosensitive Epilepsy
        • Self-Induced Seizures
        • Startle Epilepsy (Startle-Induced Seizures)
        • Television Epilepsy
        • Video Game-Induced Seizures (VGS)
      • Hormones and Epilepsy
        • Catamenial Epilepsy
          • Patterns and Causes
          • Evaluation
          • Treatment
        • Effects on Other Hormones
        • Female Reproductive Endocrine Function
          • Evaluating Reproductive Dysfunction
        • Female Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
        • Male Reproductive Endocrine Function
        • Male Sexuality/Reproduction and AEDs
        • Menarche
        • Menopause and Perimenopause
        • Other Hormonal Systems and AEDs
        • Postictal Prolactin Testing
        • Reproductive issues
          • Contraception
          • Fertility
          • Obstetrical Risks
          • Seizures During Pregnancy
          • AED Management During Pregnancy
          • Teratogenicity
          • Monitoring Pregnancy in Women with Epilepsy
          • Breastfeeding
        • References
      • Psychiatric and Behavioral Aspects
        • Effects of Treatment
        • Evaluating Psychiatric Symptoms
        • Influence of Seizure Types
        • Interictal Behaviors of TLE
        • Psychiatric Predispositions
        • Psychiatric Symptoms
          • Depression
          • Psychosis
          • Forced Normalization
          • Aggression
          • Other Psychiatric Symptoms
        • Treatment of Psychiatric Complications
        • Readings
    • Co-Existing Disorders
      • Brain Tumors
        • Pathophysiology
        • Clues to anatomic location
        • Neuroimaging
        • Astrocytoma
        • Oligodendroglioma
        • Ganglioglioma
        • DNETs
        • Meningioma
        • Metastatic
        • Treatment
        • Prophylaxis
        • AED Treatment
        • Surgical Planning and Prep
        • Postoperative Complications
        • Future Trends
        • References
      • Cardiac Disorders
        • Arrhythmias
        • Assessment: Neurologic or Cardiac?
        • Complications
        • Congenital Heart Disease
        • Managing Cardiac Disease
        • Managing Epilepsy
        • Myocardial Infarction
        • References
        • Valve Disease
      • Cerebrovascular Disease
        • Ischemic Etiologies
        • Hemorrhagic Etiologies
        • Other Etiologies
        • Epidemiology of Stroke
        • Incidence and Risk Factors for Seizures
        • Types of Seizures
        • Assessment of Seizures
        • Differential Diagnosis
        • Treatment of Seizures
          • Phenytoin
          • Phenobarbital
          • Carbamazepine
          • Valproate
          • Other AEDs
          • Special Situations
        • Prognosis
        • References
      • Developmental Disorders
        • Childhood-specific epilepsies with DD
          • Characteristics of Infantile Spasms
          • Developmental Delay and Infantile Spasms
          • Mechanisms of seizure-induced brain damage
            • Recurrent Seizures: Damage to the Developing Brain
            • Status Epilepticus : Damage to the Developing Brain
          • References
        • Mental Retardation and Cerebral Palsy
          • Characteristics of Seizures
          • Epidemiology of CP
          • Epidemiology of MR
          • Prognosis
          • References
          • Risk Among Children
            • Children with CP
            • Children with MR
            • Children with MR and CP
        • Metabolic and Genetic Disorders
          • Family History
          • Physical Examination
          • Neurologic Examination
          • Age of Onset
            • Age of Onset - table
          • Seizure Frequency and Types
          • Diagnostic Testing
            • Diagnostic Testing - table
          • Identifying the Locus
            • Identifying the Locus - table
          • Treatment
          • References
      • Gastrointestinal & Liver Disease
        • Gastrointestinal disease
        • Liver Disease
        • Effects on specific AEDs
          • Carbamazepine
          • Ethosuximide
          • Felbamate
          • Gabapentin
          • Lamotrigine
          • Levetiracetam
          • Oxcarbazepine
          • Phenobarbital
          • Phenytoin
          • Tiagabine
          • Topiramate
          • Valproic acid
          • Zonisamide
        • References
        • Choosing and monitoring AEDs
      • Head Trauma & Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
        • Management Guidelines
        • Mechanisms of Brain Injury
          • Biochemical Effects
          • Can Responses be Altered?
          • Cellular Mechanisms of Epileptogenesis
          • Genetic and Molecular Factors
        • Prevention and Prophylaxis
        • References
        • Risks
      • Hematologic Disorders
        • Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy
        • Aplastic Anemia
        • Bone Marrow Transplantation
        • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
        • Folate Deficiency
        • Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
        • Newborn Hemorrhagic Disease
        • Proliferative Disorders
        • References
        • Sickle Cell Disease
        • Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
      • Infectious States & Seizures
        • Amebic Parasitic Infections
        • Bacterial Meningitis
          • Diagnosis
          • Epidemiology
          • Seizure Complications
          • Treatment
        • Epidural Abscess
        • Epilepsy & TB treatment
        • Epilepsy as a Consequence of Infection
        • Febrile Seizures
        • Fungal Infections
        • Helminthic parasitic Infections
          • Angiostrongyliasis
          • Echinococcosis
          • Neurocysticercosis
          • Schistosomiasis
          • Strongyloidiasis
          • Toxocariasis
          • Trichinosis
        • Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients
        • Intraparenchymal Abscess
        • Lyme Disease
          • Diagnosis
          • Early Disseminated Infection
          • Early Localized Infection
          • Late Disseminated Infection
          • Treatment
        • Malaria
        • Mycobacterial Infections
          • CNS Tuberculoma
          • Tuberculous Meningitis
        • Mycoplasmal Infections
        • Noninfectious Causes of Meningitis
        • Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
        • References
        • Seizure Complications of Antibacterial Treatment
        • Slow Virus Infections
        • Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
        • Subdural Empyema
        • Syphilis
        • Toxoplasmosis
        • Trypanosomiasis
        • Viral Infections
          • Arboviruses
          • Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
          • Enteroviruses
          • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
          • HHV-6 encephalitis
          • Herpes Encephalitis
          • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
          • Rabies
          • Viral CNS Syndromes with Potential Seizure Complications - table
      • Inflammatory Disorders
        • Crohn's Disease
      • Metabolic Disorders
        • Adrenal Insufficiency
        • Electrolyte Abnormalities
          • Hypernatremia
          • Hypocalcemia
          • Hypoglycemia
          • Hypomagnesemia
          • Hyponatremia
          • Nonketotic Hyperglycemia
        • Hyperthyroidism
        • Hypoparathyroidism
        • Inborn Errors
          • Gaucher's Disease
          • Hepatic Porphyria
          • Mucopolysaccharidoses
          • Niemann-Pick Disease
          • Phenylketonuria
        • References
      • Migraine & Epilepsy
        • Classification
        • Clinical Features
        • Epidemiologic Connections
        • Headache as a Consequence of Seizures
        • Migraine & Epilepsy - table
        • Migraine-Epilepsy Syndromes
        • Phases
        • References
        • The EEG
        • Treatment Considerations
        • Variants Confused with Epilepsy
      • Renal Disorders
        • Aluminum Encephalopathy Syndrome
        • Correction for Hemodialysis
        • Dialysis Disequilibrium Syndrome
        • Dialysis Encephalopathy Syndrome
        • Drug Dosing Rate Adjustments
        • Effects of Hemodialysis
        • Effects on Specific AEDs
          • Carbamazepine
          • Clonazepam
          • Ethosuximide
          • Felbamate
          • Fosphenytoin
          • Gabapentin
          • Lamotrigine
          • Levetiracetam
          • Oxcarbazepine
          • Phenobarbital
          • Phenytoin
          • Primidone
          • Tiagabine
          • Topiramate
          • Valproate
          • Zonisamide
        • Effects on Steady-State Plasma Concentration
        • Physiology of Drug Clearance
        • References
        • Uremic Encephalopathy
      • Sleep Disorders
        • Approach to Daytime Sleepiness
        • Approach to Insomnia
        • Classification
        • Differential Diagnosis
        • Effects of AEDs on Sleep
        • Effects of IEDs on Sleep
        • Effects of Seizures on Sleep
        • Fundamentals
        • Idiopathic CNS Hypersomnia
        • Insomnia
        • Narcolepsy
        • Periodic Limb Movements and Restless Legs Syndrome
        • References
        • Sleep Apnea
      • Transplantation & Seizures
        • Acute Management
        • Bone Marrow
        • Chronic Management
        • Diagnostic Approach
        • Heart
        • Kidney
        • Liver
        • Lung
        • Pancreas
        • References
      • Pulmonary Disorders
        • Focal Cortical or Limbic-Onset Seizures
        • Generalized Seizures or SE
        • References
        • Respiratory Effects of AEDs
        • Respiratory Insufficiency
        • Sleep Apnea Syndrome
        • Theophylline Toxicity
    • Specialized Populations
      • Men
        • Effects of AEDs
        • Reproductive Endocrine Disorders
        • Male Infertility
        • Male Contraception
        • Effects of AEDs on Male Maturation
        • Effects on Sexual Function
        • A Commentary: The Effects of AEDS on Male Hormones
        • References
      • Seniors
        • Common Causes
        • Strokes
        • Seizure Presentation
        • Causes of Episodic Neurologic Dysfunction
        • Evaluation of First Seizure
        • First Seizure Treatment
        • Choosing AEDs for Seniors
        • Pharmacokinetics
        • Prognosis and Quality of Life
        • Long-term Management
        • Surgery
        • Status Epilepticus
        • References
      • Women
        • Physician's Discussion Checklist for Women with Epilepsy
        • Discussion Guide
        • New Evidence for Heightened Obstetrical Risk in Women with Epilepsy
    • Diagnosis & Treatment
      • The Epilepsy Clinic–Test Your Clinical Knowledge
        • AED Withdrawl and CAAEEG
        • Artifact Read as GSW in Vertigo
        • DT Tractography
        • Dementia and EEG
        • Epilepsy and Alzheimer’s Dementia
        • Generic Drugs and Epilepsy
        • How Can EEG Help After a Seizure?
        • IED Frequency and Seizure Severity
        • Ictal Asystole
        • Jeavon's Syndrome
        • LGS and Pseudoseizure
        • Lambda Waves
        • Left ATL and Memory Outcome
        • Panayiotopoulos Syndrome
        • Post TLE AED Withdrawl
        • Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy
        • Rasmussen Encephalitis and Hemispherectomy
        • Rett Syndrome
        • SISCOM
        • Spells and Abnormal EEG
        • Spells and Cerebrovascular Disease
        • The Interictal-Ictal Continuum
        • Wada Testing and Functional MRI
        • What are the Pitfalls in the Diagnosis of Epilepsy in the Elderly?
        • What is the Importance of Classification?
        • When Do You Consider Epilepsy Drug Resistant?
        • Why Delay?
        • Wickets and Surgical Delay
        • iEEG and discordant scEEG
        • mTLE and Seizures after LATL
      • Epilepsy Care Quality Measures
        • Evaluation of a First Seizure
        • New Onset Epilepsy
        • Patients with Refractory Seizures
        • Women of Childbearing Potential
        • Patient-Identified Quality Measures
      • Disgnostic Evaluation of Autoimmune Epilepsy
      • Clinical Trials
      • Drugs & Their Contribution to Seizures
        • Metabolic Encephalopathy
        • Surgery and Anesthesia
        • Antimicrobial Drugs and Immunosuppression
        • Differentiating Nonepileptic Behavior
        • Antidepressants
        • Antipsychotics
        • Anxiolytics and Hypnotics
        • Amphetamines
        • AEDs that can Cause Seizures
        • OTC and Herbal Medicines
        • Alcohol
        • Cocaine
        • Illicit Stimulants
        • Opioids and CNS Depressants
        • References
      • Emergency Department Care
        • Acutely Seizing Patients
          • Absence Seizures
          • Myoclonic Seizures
          • Nonepileptic Psychogenic Seizures
        • Approach to Epilepsy
          • Treating Convulsive SE
        • First or Unknown Seizure History Visits
        • Non-Seizure Visits
        • Post-Seizure Visits
          • Abnormal Neuroimaging
          • Abnormal Postictal Labs
          • Abnormal Postictal Neurologic Exam
          • Changes in Duration, Frequency, or Type
        • References
      • ICU Care
        • Electively Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
        • Electively Admitted: Treating Seizures
        • Emergently Admitted: Pharmacologic Concerns
        • Emergently Admitted: Treating Seizures
        • References
      • Ketogenic Diet
      • Non-Drug Therapies
      • Procedures in Epilepsy Patients
        • Premedication
        • Anesthesia
        • General Anesthetics
          • Barbiturates
          • Benzodiazepines
          • Enflurane
          • Etomidate
          • Ketamine
          • Opioids
          • Other Inhalational Agents
          • Propofol
        • Local Anesthesia
          • Lidocaine
          • Other Local Anesthetics
        • Anesthetic Adjuvants
        • Non-Opioid Analgesics
        • Preoperative Planning and Management
        • Dental Procedures
        • References
      • Psychotropic Drugs & Developmental Disabilities
        • Diagnostic Issues
        • Psychiatric Disorders
        • Comorbid Epilepsy Approach
          • Antidepressants
          • Antipsychotics
          • Buspirone
          • Beta-Blockers
          • Amphetamines
          • Mood Stabilizers
        • References
      • Psychotropic Effects on Developmental Disabilities
        • Adminstration of AEDs
        • Clinical Effects of AEDs
        • Specific AEDs
          • Barbiturates
          • Benzodiazepines
          • Carbamazepine
          • Ethosuximide
          • Felbamate
          • Gabapentin
          • Lamotrigine
          • Phenytoin
          • Tiagabine
          • Topiramate
          • Valproic Acid
          • Vigabatrin
        • Vagus Nerve Stimulation
        • References
      • Surgery
        • Children with Medically Refractory Epilepsy
          • Case Illustrations
          • Rationale for Surgery
        • Corpus Callosotomy
        • Hemispherectomy
        • Implanted EEG Electrodes
        • Lobectomy Outlook
        • Neurostimulation for Epilepsy